The Comparison of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Perceived Stress between Iranian Single-Parent and Single-Child Adolescents

Research Article

Austin Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018;3(1): 1009.

The Comparison of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Perceived Stress between Iranian Single-Parent and Single-Child Adolescentss

Mastari Farahani S1* and Asgharnejad Farid AA2

1Department of Psychology, Human Sciences School, Saveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Saveh, Iran

2Department of Clinical Psychology, Department of Mental Health, School of Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health-Tehran Institute of Psychiatry, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

*Corresponding author: Mastari Farahani S, Department of Psychology, Human Sciences School, Saveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Saveh, Iran

Received: August 21, 2018; Accepted: September 24, 2018; Published: October 01, 2018

Abstract

The family is a group consisting of parents and children living together in a household. Adolescence is one of the most critical developmental stages. Single-parent and single-child phenomena can develop mental health problems in such adolescents. The aim of the study was to compare Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs) and perceived stress between Iranian single-parent adolescents and single-child adolescents. This was an Ex-Post Facto research. The sample was 60 Iranian female adolescents (30 single-parent and 30 single-child) who were selected from the Culture, Hazrat Zahra, and Farzanegan schools at Tehran city. The instruments were the Young-Short Form Schema Questionnaire, and Perceived Stress Scale. Data were analyzed using MANOVA, univariate ANOVA, and independent t-test by the SPSS23 software. There were significant differences between two groups in the EMSs of Emotional Deprivation, Mistrust/Abuse, Vulnerability, Emotional Inhibition, Unrelenting Standards, and Insufficient Self-Discipline (p<0.05). There was a significant difference between two groups in perceived stress (p<0.001). The single-parent adolescents showed more EMSs and higher perceived stress than single-child adolescents. The conditions of single-parent adolescents can lead to mental health problems. They should be considered as a high-risk group for the development of psychiatric disorders.

Keywords: Early Maladaptive Schemas; Perceived Stress; Single-Parent; Single-Child; Adolescents; Iran 

Introduction

The family is the first founder of personality, values, emotions, intellectual, and moral standards. Today, children and teens may not have one of parents in their life. In a single-guardian family, there is only one of the parents and the guardianship of child is left with another parent. Factors of single-guardian family may include death, and divorce. Also adopted children who were born without marriage of their parents together, may live in a single-guardian family [1,2]. Since a child has certain emotional needs in any of his developmental stage; a parent cannot solve them lonely. So the reactions are different at any age stage. In higher ages, the first reaction of children toward a parent's death or divorce includes a mourning period [3,4]. Because teens sometimes have tensions with their parents, additional to mourning, they are blamed themselves and constantly imagine that they were not a good offspring, so they lost their parents. Given the fact that teens are looking for identity and autonomy, they likely less pattern from their parents, tend to peers, or under influence of adults who are interested in them. Therefore, it is difficult for parents who are alone to raise their offsprings [5,6].

The single-guardian children are deprived of intimate relationships of parents. They suffer from mood disorders, insecurity, dependency or rejection. The incidence of mental disorders, suicide, addiction, and harm is high in single-parent children. Literature has shown self-regulation, emotional intelligence and self-concept were significantly higher in Iranian children with two-parent family than children with divorced parents [7]. There is no a friendly and warm relationship in single-parent families. The teens of such families had behavioral and psychological problems [8,9]. Behavioral disorders were lower and academic self-concept was higher in two-parent students than single-parent students. Conduct and hyperactivity disorders were lower in mother single-parent students than father single-parent students, and there was no a significant difference in academic self-concept in mother single-parent and father single-parent students [10,11]. Adolescents with divorced parents had more educational problems such as low academic achievement, tendency to drop out of education, and academic failure than adolescents with two-parent family [12]. Single-parent teens living without their grandparents had more scores in maladaptive schemas compare to single-parent teens living with them [13]. Single-parent teens had more achieved identity, and two-parent teens had more forceclosure identity. There was no significant difference between quality of life among single-parent and two-parent teens. Single-parent teens were more depressive and anxious than two-parent teens [14]. Two-parent teens had more healthy lifestyle, academic achievement, higher self-esteem, and lower aggression than single-parent teens. Two-parent teens more displayed their feelings, emotions, and thoughts [15].

Childbearing is one of the most important functions of family. Single-child is a pervasive phenomenon in Iranian society [16,17]. Today, given the cultural and social conditions, economic problems, concerned about the costs, multi-child problems, marriage in high ages, divorce, and other reasons, the number of single-child families have increased in Iran [18,19,20]. The decline in population growth was been influenced by cultural factors such as the process of globalization, and change from collectivist values to individualism values [21]. One study showed that attitudes toward gender roles had a significant relationship with ideal number of children among Iranian families [22]. Although, single-child is not problematic by itself, but inappropriate parenting styles may have poor consequences [23]. Single-child versus multi-child families can shape behavior and cognition of children in so many ways [24,25]. In single-child families, parents expect all of their wishes from children, and they want children show the best performance in all of areas of life. This demand develops perfectionism in single-children and harm to such children [26,27]. Single-child parents, who do not change their parenting styles during adolescent stage, will cause a double burden on the adolescents that can have adverse effects on them [28]. Found that conduct and attention deficit disorders were more common in multi-child families than single-child families. Some single-child damages include child’s domination, early maturity, reduction in social relationships and family cohesion, poor familial ties, substituting media such as television, computer games, the Internet and satellite [29,30]. Reported children with siblings had more social adjustment [31]. Indicated that single-child families’ kids were more destructive and aggressive, more scapegoated, less social skills, and less popularity in peer group than children with siblings [32]. Found that two-child families’ kids had less internalization and externalization problems than single-child families’ kids.

Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs) are deep and pervasive patterns that are formed during childhood or adolescence stages, are continuous in the course of life, associated with one's relationship with oneself and with others; and extremely dysfunctional. The EMSs result in child’s dysfunctional experiences in the relation to parents, sisters, brothers and peers during the early years of life, and can be harmful. The EMSs have developed due to the lack of satisfaction of five essential emotional needs (secure attachment to others and self-regulation; adequacy and identity; freedom to express healthy needs and emotions; self-motivation and recreation; realistic limitations and self-control) in childhood stage. The 18 EMSs have introduced in five main domains [33]. Some interventional approaches such as schema therapy, cognitive therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy were effective on the EMSs, and behavioral disorders [34,35,36]. Stress is a one's reaction to an environment that on the basis one's interpretation, is a threat to his potentials and resources, and is hazard to his healthy. Stressors are situations and events that people force to react to them [37]. Reactions to stress may manifest as physical, behavioral or psychological responses. The intensity of perceived stress refers to the one's belief in the seriousness of stress [38]. Previous studies have shown the EMSs can play a role in high perceived stress [39,40]; in ineffective coping strategies [41]; in maladaptive interpersonal behaviors [42]; failure in doing of psychosocial developmental tasks [43]; in low social functioning and high distress [44]. One study showed that the EMSs Self-sacrifice correlated with depression, and Defectiveness/shame predicted anxiety in Iranian female adolescents [45]. Another study found that the EMSs of Loneliness, Vulnerability, Mistrust/abuse, Defectiveness, Failure, Unrelated standards, and Entitlement correlated with depression, and predicted 38.4% of depression in Iranian adolescents [46]. In this regard, the aim of the study was to compare the EMSs and perceived stress between Iranian single-parent female adolescents and single-child adolescents.

Methods and Materials

Participants

This was an Ex-Post Facto research. The sample was 60 Iranian female adolescents 15-17 years old (30 single-parent and 30 single-child) who were selected from the Culture, Hazrat Zahra, and Farzanegan schools at Tehran city.

Procedure

The study protocol was approved by an institutional review board. With reference to the mentioned schools, students who had criteria of the study were selected. The goals of study, being confidential of information were explained to them. The students provided written consent. They completed the Farsi versions of the Young-Short Form Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-SF), and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The questionnaires were performed in the sample individually. Data were analyzed using MANOVA, univariate ANOVA, and independent t-test by the SPSS23 software.

Measures

Young-Short Form Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-SF): The YSQ-SF is a self-report tool and consists of 75 items measuring 15 Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs). Five main domains of the EMSs contain Disconnection and Rejection (Emotional deprivation, Abandonment, Mistrust, Social Isolation, Defectiveness); Impaired Autonomy and Performance (Failure, Dependence, Vulnerability, Enmeshment); Other-directedness (Subjugation, Self-sacrifice); Over-vigilance and Inhibition (Emotional Inhibition, Unrelenting Standards); and Impaired Limits (Entitlement, Insufficient Self-Discipline). Items are answered on a six-point Likert scale: Completely false (1), False (2), More true than false (3), Somewhat true (4), True (5), and Completely true (6). Each 5 items measure one schema. If mean score of one schema is higher 3, the schema is considered as a maladaptive schema [47,48]. Research has demonstrated that the various version of the YSQ-SF such as Norwegian, Persian, had adequate internal consistency and factor structure [44,49-52]. Found that the Cronbach's α coefficients of EMSs were between 0.49 for Enmeshment/undeveloped self and 0.82 for Abandonment/instability in Iranian single-parent and two-parent female adolescents. In the present study the Cronbach's α of the EMSs were between 0.74 and 0.89, indicating high internal consistency.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of variables for the sample.





  

    
Age

    
Single-parent

    
Single-child

  

  

    
F

    
%

    
F

    
%

  

  

    
15 years old

    
8

    
13.3

    
7

    
11.7

  

  

    
16 years old

    
13

    
21.7

    
13

    
21.7

  

  

    
17 years old

    
9

    
15

    
10

    
16.7

  

  

    
Scales/Subscales

    
M

    
SD

    
M

    
SD

  

  

    
Young-Short Form Schema    Questionnaire (YSQ-SF)

    
236.56

    
16.31

    
179.26

    
15.35

  

  

    
Emotional Deprivation (ED)

    
16.54

    
7.55

    
11.94

    
4.32

  

  

    
Nurturance (N)

    
17.22

    
6.86

    
12.58

    
4.58

  

  

    
Mistrust/Abuse (MA)

    
15.84

    
7.8

    
11.25

    
4.3

  

  

    
Entitlement/Grandiosity (ET)

    
15.36

    
8.2

    
9.22

    
4.52

  

  

    
Defectiveness/Shame (DS)

    
13.7

    
9.27

    
8.21

    
4.38

  

  

    
Dependence/Incompetence (DI)

    
14.8

    
8.5

    
8.72

    
4.76

  

  

    
Subjugation (SB)

    
14.56

    
8.51

    
9.92

    
4.43

  

  

    
Enmeshment (EM)

    
15.12

    
8.06

    
10.13

    
4.64

  

  

    
Vulnerability (V)

    
14.98

    
8.18

    
10.64

    
4.84

  

  

    
Failure (FA)

    
20.01

    
6.95

    
14.84

    
5.11

  

  

    
Emotional Inhibition (EI)

    
18.74

    
8.43

    
12.6

    
4.4

  

  

    
Unrelenting Standards (US)

    
18.23

    
7.41

    
14.76

    
4.88

  

  

    
Insufficient Self-Discipline (IS)

    
18.41

    
8.03

    
12.66

    
4.31

  

  

    
Social Isolation/Alienation (SI)

    
18.84

    
6.46

    
13.57

    
4.41

  

  

    
Sacrifice Self (SS)

    
14.23

    
7.11

    
10.26

    
4.44

  

  

    
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)

    
42.3

    
5.84

    
36.66

    
5.98

  










Table 1: Descriptive statistics of variables for the sample.

Table 2: Results of the Multivariate Testsa.










Effect




Value




F




Hypothesis df




  Error df




Sig




Eta (Effect size)








Intercept




 




 




 




 




 




 








Pillai's Trace




0.955




62.465b




15




44




0




0.47








Wilks' Lambda




0.045




62.465b




15




44




0




0.47








Hotelling's Trace




21.295




62.465b




15




44




0




0.47








Roy's Largest Root




21.295




62.465b




15




44




0




0.47








Group




 




 




 




 




 




 








Pillai's Trace




0.678




6.167b




15




44




0




0.47








Wilks' Lambda




0.322




6.167b




15




44




0




0.47








Hotelling's Trace




2.102




6.167b




15




44




0




0.47








Roy's Largest Root




2.102




6.167b




15




44




0




0.47

aDesign: Intercept + group,

bExact statistic.




Table 2: Results of the Multivariate Testsa.

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): The PSS was developed by [53]. The scale measures psychological distress and that how ones interpret stress in unpredictable and uncontrollable events of life. It has 4, 10, and 14-items versions. Each item is scored five-point Likert scale. The subjects asked to indicate in the last month, how often have you been/felt or thought a certain way? The PSS total score for the 14-items ranges from 0 to 4: Never (0), Almost never (1), Sometimes (2), Fairly often (3), and Very often (4). Items 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 13 are scored in the reverse direction. The scores range from 0 to 56. The PSS has no classified scores and cut points. The higher scores indicate more perceived stress. The PSS is appropriate for comparing of perceived stress among different populations [54,55,56]. Acceptable psychometric properties have been reported for the PSS [53,56-65]. In the present study the 14-items version was used, and the Cronbach's α coefficient was 0.90, donating high internal consistency.

Results

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics (percent, frequency, mean and standard deviation) of the variables for the sample. The results of x2 test showed that there were no significant differences between two groups in variable of age, and the groups was homogeneous (x2=0.12, df=1, p>0.05). The single-parent adolescents showed higher mean scores in both of early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) and perceived stress than single-child adolescents.

For determination of normality of the data, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used. The obtained significant levels in EMSs (z=0.83, sig=0.51, p>0.05) and in perceived stress (z=1.07, sig=0.19, p>0.05) were greater than 0.05. As for the normality distribution of data, parametric statistical tests were used to analyze the data.

The prerequisites of normality distribution of data, the equality of variance, and the equality of matrix of covariances were confirmed. The significance levels of all tests allow the use of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to testing the statistical significance of the mean differences in EMSs between the groups. There is a significant difference at least in the one of the EMSs as the dependent variables. The amount of this difference was (Wilk’s lambda=0.11, p<0.05) (Table 2).

For determine of difference between the groups in each of the variables, the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. Table 3 shows the results of ANOVA for comparison of groups in EMSs. there is a significant difference between two groups in the EMSs of Emotional Deprivation, Mistrust/Abuse, Vulnerability to harm or illness, Emotional Inhibition, Unrelenting Standards, and Insufficient Self-Discipline (p<0.05). The mean scores of EMSs in the single-parent adolescents were significantly higher than single-child adolescents (236.56, SD=16.31 vs. 179.20, SD=15.35). The obtained significance level of the EMSs is smaller than the Benfronni's correction (the division of the significance level of 0.05 to 15 EMSs components). For all of EMSs, the effect size (Eta) was 0.47, p=0.001. That means 47% of the total variance or individual differences in EMSs was related to group differences (single-parent and single-child adolescents).

Table 4 shows means, standard deviation and t-test on the PSS scores. Findings showed that there were significant differences between two groups. Single-parent adolescents had higher scores than single-child adolescents (t=3.68, df=58, p<0.001).

Table 3: Univariate ANOVA for the EMSs scores.





  

    
Source

    
Sum    of Squares

    
df

    
Mean    Square

    
F

    
P

    
Eta    (Effect size)

    
Power

  

  

    
Emotional Deprivation (ED)

    
317.4

    
1

    
317.4

    
16.22

    
0.001

    
0.17

    
0.93

  

  

    
Nurturance (N)

    
122.94

    
1

    
122.94

    
5.04

    
0.04

    
0.07

    
0.53

  

  

    
Mistrust/Abuse (MA)

    
315.56

    
1

    
315.56

    
12.51

    
0.001

    
0.16

    
0.91

  

  

    
Entitlement/Grandiosity (ET)

    
164.26

    
1

    
164.26

    
5.28

    
0.03

    
0.11

    
0.73

  

  

    
Defectiveness/Shame (DS)

    
152.65

    
1

    
152.65

    
7.49

    
0.008

    
0.2

    
0.97

  

  

    
Dependence/Incompetence (DI)

    
54.49

    
1

    
54.49

    
2.01

    
0.09

    
0.04

    
0.38

  

  

    
Subjugation (SB)

    
122.94

    
1

    
122.94

    
7.92

    
0.006

    
0.19

    
0.96

  

  

    
Enmeshment (EM)

    
73.01

    
1

    
73.01

    
3.45

    
0.04

    
0.07

    
0.53

  

  

    
Vulnerability (V)

    
283.4

    
1

    
283.4

    
13.44

    
0.001

    
0.27

    
0.99

  

  

    
Failure (FA)

    
301.45

    
1

    
301.45

    
11.97

    
0.003

    
0.15

    
0.88

  

  

    
Emotional Inhibition (EI)

    
365.49

    
1

    
365.49

    
14.61

    
0.001

    
0.17

    
0.92

  

  

    
Unrelenting Standards (US)

    
380.96

    
1

    
380.96

    
19.49

    
0.001

    
0.25

    
0.99

  

  

    
Insufficient Self-Discipline (IS)

    
195.36

    
1

    
195.36

    
10.58

    
0.002

    
0.15

    
0.87

  

  

    
Social Isolation/Alienation (SI)

    
216.06

    
1

    
216.06

    
9.76

    
0.003

    
0.15

    
0.87

  

  

    
Sacrifice Self (SS)

    
32.01

    
1

    
32.01

    
3.08

    
0.045

    
0.06

    
0.52

  











Table 3: Univariate ANOVA for the EMSs scores.

Table 4: Means, standard deviation and t-test for perceived stress scores.





  

    
Groups

    
M

    
SD

    
T

    
df

    
P

  

  

    
Single-parent 

    
42.3

    
5.84

    
3.68

    
58

    
0.000 

  

  

    
Single-child

    
36.66

    
5.98

  











Table 4: Means, standard deviation and t-test for perceived stress scores.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to compare Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs) and perceived stress in single-parent and single-child adolescents. The results showed that there were significant differences between single-parent adolescents in the EMSs of Emotional Deprivation, Mistrust/Abuse, Vulnerability to harm or illness, Emotional Inhibition, Unrelenting Standards, and Insufficient Self-Discipline compare to single-parent adolescents. It seems Iranian single-parent adolescents experience more emotional harms. Based on the Beck’s cognitive theory, the absence of one of parents can depress adolescents. Due to the absence of one of their parents, single-parent adolescents have negative schemas: if they encounter with environmental stressors, caused by being single parent, the EMSs will be activated in their minds. In other words, stressors are triggered for developing the EMSs in them [66,67]. Based on the hierarchical model of social interaction anxiety and depression [68,69], argued that the EMSs impact on the thought levels, and mutually, these levels of thoughts contribute to the continuity of schemas [70]. Calvete [69] found that emotional abuse and brooding rumination can predict and mediate EMSs and a role play to develop of depressive and social anxiety disorders in adolescents. Abedini [52] reported that Iranian single-parent female adolescents had significant higher scores on the EMSs of Social Isolation/Alienation, Failure, Dependence/Incompetence, Vulnerability, Subjugation, Sacrifice Self, and higher scores on the anxious/depressed, withdrawn/depressed, social problems, attention problems, and aggressive behavior subscales; and also had significant lower scores on the social self-esteem subscale than two-parent female adolescents. Bidar Tabie [13] reported that Iranian single-parent adolescents living without their grandparents had significant higher scores in the EMSs of Disconnection/Rejection, Mistrust/Abuse, Emotional deprivation, Vulnerability, Defectiveness/Shame, Failure, Emotional inhibition, Insufficient Self-Discipline, Social isolation, Subjugation, and Enmeshment compare to single-parent adolescents living with them. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the EMSs of Sacrifice Self, Unrelenting Standars, and Entitlement/ Grandiosity. Also single-parent adolescents living with their grandparents had significant higher scores in the social performance dimensions (academic performance, relationships with peers, family relationships, and self-care) than adolescents living without them.

A single-parent family causes to develop of behavior problems and impact on the progress and prognosis of these problems [71]. Indicated that Iranian single-parent students had significantly more behavior problems (aggression-hyperactivity, anxiety, depression, antisocial behaviors) than two-parent students. The female single-parent students reported higher levels of anxiety, depression, and attention deficit disorder than two-parent and male single-parent students [72]. Reported that Iranian two-parent children had higher social skills and academic performance, less physical symptoms, anxiety, social dysfunction, depression and general mental disorder than children with divorced and divorcing parents [73]. Found Iranian single-parent adolescents had higher significant scores on the own position subscale of self- differentiation index (DSI) than two-parent adolescents. Single-parent families directly and indirectly impact on the growth, behavior, mental health, physical health and adjustment of children. The development of personality the child and adolescent is strongly influenced by their parents. The absence of one parent or both of them, have an adverse effect on their development, and predispose them to subsequent mental or behavioral disorders. Father's absence can have a direct effect (e.g. depriving a child of a male role model) and indirect (e.g. support) on the children [2]. Single-parent children have low inner inhibition and fail to identify and understand emotions of themselves and others [74,75]. Father-single parent children had more problematic behaviors than mother-single parent children [76]. Iranian children who were deprived from father had more behavioral and emotional disorders such as anxiety, depression, somatic problems, oppositional defiant disorders, and poorer academic performance than children who had father [77,78]. Single-parent children and adolescents suffer more likely of economic poverty, low self-confidence, low self-esteem, low social skills, low academic achievement, and academic dropouts, worried, anxious, disappointed, depressed, aggression, antisocial behavior, delinquency, and psychosocial problems than two-parent children and adolescents [4,5,75,79-84]. Stress, and anxiety are higher in single-parent adolescents, parents spend less time interacting with them because they are engaging in more problems. Therefore, the adolescents have less financial resources and less social support [1,3,14,80,85-87]. Showed that single-child students had lower significant mean scores in the EMSs than multi-child students. The mean scores of over control parenting styles in multi-child students were higher than single -child students and the mean scores of inhibitor parenting style in single-child students were higher than multi-child students. The rejective parenting style significant positive correlated with the EMSs of Failure, Dependence, and Enmeshment; over control parenting styles significant positive correlated with the EMSs of Social Isolation, Failure, Enmeshment, and Subjugation; permissive parenting style significant positive correlated with the EMSs of Social Isolation, Defectiveness, Failure, Vulnerability, Enmeshment, and Subjugation in single-child students.

The findings showed single-parent adolescents had significant higher scores in perceived stress compare to single-child adolescents. According to Carl Rogers, the humanistic theorist, the lack of unconditional positive regard in some single-parent families (especially mother single-parent families) may develop personality disorder in adolescents. Single-parent adolescents cannot cope with their conditions. Lack of honest acceptance of self and lack of acceptance of their circumstances cause single-parent adolescents try to change their thoughts and emotions, which cause higher perceived stress in them. Also, based on the cognitive theory of anxiety, it seems that stress and anxiety that a father/mother single-parent encounters may also transfer to their children. Lack of control of events and unpredictability of conditions in single-parent families can lead to increased stress and anxiety in family members and disturb their calm and peace. When adolescents imagine that there are no accessible goals for them, their anxiety increase, and the stress deriving from these conditions overcomes to rational thoughts of them. Nematollah [7] showed that self-regulation, emotional intelligence and self-concept in Iranian two-parent children were significantly higher than divorced families’ children [88]. Reported that Iranian multi-child families’ adolescents had significant higher scores in hope, resiliency, and differentiation than single-child families’ adolescents [89-93]. Found that social cognition was higher in Iranian multi-child families than single-child families.

The study has some limitations. The project was a causal comparative study, and causal relationships between the variables were not assessed. Other factors such as social and cultural issues may impact on the results. The sample was limited to Iranian female adolescents. The phenomenon of single-parent can lead to mental health problems in adolescents. They are a high-risk group for the development of psychiatric disorders. Using of psychological and counseling services for single-parent and low-income families, is recommended. Insurance companies should be coverage these services for them. The establishment of an independent organization with financial credits in Iran that can provide economic, cultural, social, and educational support for single-parent families is suggested. Providing more knowledge about single-parent adolescents’ characteristics, as well as training of appropriate parenting styles for single-parent families, is necessary. Longitudinal and prospective studies, using of qualitative, interview methods and large sample size, are recommended. Combination of schema therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing the ESMs in single-parent adolescents will be effective.

References

  1. Ryan RM, Markowitz AJ, Claessens A. Associations between family structure change and child behavior problems: The moderating effect of family income. Child Development. 2015; 86: 112-127.
  2. Nelson BL. Divorce mediation and its impact on children. Thesis for Master of Social Work St. Minnesota, USA: Catherine University and the University of St. 2013.
  3. Lansford JE. Parental divorce and children's adjustment. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2009; 4: 140-152.
  4. Clark-Stewart A, Brentan C. Divorce: causes and consequences. Yale: Yale University Press. 2006.
  5. Gahler M, Garriga A. Has the association between parental divorce and young adults’ psychological problems changed over time? Evidence from Sweden, 1968-2000. Journal of Family Issues. 2012; 34: 784-808.
  6. Faber AJ, Edwards AE, Bauer KS, Wetchler JL. Family structure: Its effects on adolescent attachment and identity formation. American Journal of Family Therapy. 2006; 31: 243-255.
  7. Nematollah T. The comparison of self-regulation, emotional intelligence and self-concept in two-parent children and divorced families’ children. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [School of Literature and Human Sciences, Sharood, Iran]: Azad Islamic University, Sharood branch. 2016.
  8. Alami A, Khosravan S, Mogadam LS, Pakravan F, Hosseini F. Adolescents’ self-esteem in single and two-parent families. International Journal of Community Based Nursing and Midwifery. 2014; 2: 69-76.
  9. Falana BA, Olatunji bada F, Ayodele CJ. Single-parent family structure, psychological, social and cognitive development of children in Ekiti state. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. 2012; 2: 158-164.
  10. Salehi M, Imamipour S, Hasani SH. Comparison of behavioral disorders and self-concept of single-parent and normal families’ male primary students. Psychological Researches. 2013; 5: 67-82.
  11. Hasani SH, Salehi M, Imamipour S. A cross-comparison of behavioral disorders among primary school boys raised in single- and two-parent families. Quarterly Journal of Family and Research. 2012; 9: 121-138.
  12. Yahyazadeh H, Hamed M. Issues and interventions of children of divorce in Iran: a meta-analysis of articles. Journal of Woman and Family Studies. 2016; 2: 91-120.
  13. Bidar Tabie I. Comparison of schemas, and social function in single-parent adolescents living with and without their grand-mother and grand-father. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [School of Literature and Human Sciences, Tehran, Iran]: Tehran Science and Culture University. 2016.
  14. Abedini Z, Mirnasab MM, Fathi Azar E. A comparative study of identity styles, quality of life and behavioral problems between single parent and two parent adolescents. Journal of Education and Learning. 2017a; 6: 235-245.
  15. Shebestari ZP. Effectiveness of psychological resiliency promotion training on the social relationships in single-parent adolescents. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [School of Educational Sciences, and Psychology, Teharn, Iran]: Allameh Tabatabaie University. 2016.
  16. Alidosti M, Dehghani SL, Babaei-Heydarabadi A, Tavassoli E. Comparison of parenting style in single child and multiple children families. Iranian Journal of Health Sciences. 2016; 4: 49-54.
  17. Shirazi E. Single-child. Ghatreh Publication, Tehran, Iran. 2015.
  18. Mastari Farahani S, Asgharnejad Farid AA. Personality traits in single-parent and single-child adolescents: a comparative study. Paper on presented at International Congress on SCIENCE & KNOWLEDGE. August. 2018; 20.
  19. Mirhosseini HS, Rafiee Javid Z. The comparison of ambiguity, loneliness feeling and responsibility tolerance among the children of single child and multi child families. Life Science Journal. 2013; 1: 3089-3095.
  20. Ghaleh Barkhordari F. The comparison of ambiguity, loneliness feeling and responsibility tolerance among the children of single child and multi child families. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [School of Psychology, and Social Sciences, Tehran, Iran]: Azad Islamic University, Centre Tehran. 2013.
  21. Farahani FK, Sabet SK. Trends and correlates of one child families in Iran; Implications for population policies, presented in The UCL-Leverhulme Trust Population Footprints Symposium, UCL, London. 2011.
  22. Soroush M, Bahrani S. Relationship of religiosity, attitude toward gender roles and attitude to having child with real and ideal numbers. Women in Development & Politics. 2013; 2: 189-208.
  23. Shooshtray MH, Panaghy L, Hajebi A, Abedi Sh. Emotional and behavioral problems of single parent vs. two parent children: Imam Khomeini Charity. Journal of Tehran University Medical. 2008; 66: 196-202.
  24. Yang J, Hou X, Wei D, Wang K, Li Y, Qiu J. Only-child and non-only-child exhibit differences in creativity and agreeableness: evidence from behavioral and anatomical structural studies. Brain Imaging and Behavior. 2017; 2: 493-502.
  25. Mirghaforian Z. Comparison of personality traits, self-efficacy, adjustment, and perfectionism in single-child and multiple-child female high school students. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [Sharood, Iran]: Research Sciences University. 2014.
  26. Farahani FK, Sarabi H. Survey of underlie conditions of single-child intent and behavior in Teran. Women Strategic Studies. 2016; 18: 29-58.
  27. Farnoodian P, Asadzadeh H, Ebrahimighavam S. Relationship between parenting style and perfectionism and self-regulation and comparison in students of single and multiple children families, Behavioral Sciences. 2013; 5: 99-120.
  28. Goodarzi SS, Derakhshanpour F, Sadr S, Yasemi MT. Comparison of behavioral disorders in single child vs. multiple children families. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology. 2003; 9: 20-26.
  29. Foladband F. Single-child harms. Shiraz E-Medical Journal. 2015; 31: e27537.
  30. Zupancic M, Kavcic T. Factors of social adjustment to school: child’s personality, family and pre-school. Journal Early Child Development and Care. 2011; 4: 493-504.
  31. Cutting AL, Duun J. Conversations with siblings and with friends: Links between relationship quality and social understanding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2006; 24: 73-87.
  32. Satorian AS, Tahmassian K, Ahmadi MR. Comparison of behavioral problems in single-child and two-child families. Ravanshenasi-va ?Din. 2014; 7: 65-80.
  33. Young JE, Klosko JS, Weishaar ME. Schema therapy: a practitioner’s guide. New York: Guilford Press. 2003.
  34. Askari M, Naderi F, Askari P, Heidari A, Ehteshamzadeh P. The effectiveness of combination schema therapy and attachment-based therapy for mothers with insecure attachment style on children’s behavioral problems and parent-child relationships. Iranian Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 2016; 3: 42-49.
  35. Askari M, Naderi F, Ehteshamzadeh P, Askari P, Heidari, A. The effectiveness of combination intervention of schema therapy and attachment-based therapy on parent-child relationships. Iranian Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 2017; 4: 7-15.
  36. Kameli Z, Hashemabadi BAG, Sherbaf HAM. Surveying the effectiveness of cognitive group therapy concentrated on schema on modifying the early maladaptive schemas of young orphan females. Clinical Psychology and Consultation Researches. 2011; 1: 83-98.
  37. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer. 1989.
  38. Baqutayan SMS. Stress and coping mechanisms: a historical overview. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 2015; 6: 479-488.
  39. Saadat S, Asghari F, Jazayeri R. The relationship between academic self-efficacy with perceived stress, coping strategies and perceived social support among students of university of Guilan. Iranian Journal of Medical Education. 2015; 15: 67-78.
  40. Mirzaiean B, Jadidi M, Ashorian M. Prediction of stress in students on the basis of early maladaptive schemas. Paper presented at the National Conference on Sustainable Development in Educational Sciences, and Psychology, Social and Cultural Studies, Mehr Arvand Excellence Education Institute, Centre of Educational Sciences, and Psychology, Tehran, Iran. 2014.
  41. Dehghani S, Izadikhah Z, Mohammadtaghi Nasab M, Rezaei E. The path analysis of early maladaptive schemas, coping strategies and mental quality of life. Journal of Research in Behavioral Sciences. 2014; 12: 1-8.
  42. Thimm JC. Early maladaptive schemas and interpersonal problems: a circumplex analysis of the YSQ-SF. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy. 2013; 13: 113-124.
  43. Thimm JC. Relationships between early maladaptive schemas and psychosocial developmental task resolution. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2010; 17: 219-230.
  44. Taylor CD, Harper SF. Early maladaptive schema, social functioning and distress in psychosis: A preliminary investigation. Clinical Psychologist. 2017; 21: 135-142.
  45. Shariati S, Shariatnia K, Ghasemian D. Correlation between depression and early maladaptive schemas in female students of third year of high school in Minudasht. Journal of Psychology & Behavioral Studies. 2014; 2: 30-38.
  46. Montazeri M, Kaveh Farsani Z, Mehrabi HA, Shakiba A. Relationship between early maladaptive schemas and depression in guidance school students in Falavarjan. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. 2013; 23: 179-188.
  47. Young JE. Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange, Inc. 1990.
  48. Young JE. Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form 3 (YSQ-S3). New York: Schema Therapy Institute. 2005.
  49. Rafaeli E, Bernstein DP, Young J. Schema therapy: Distinctive features. New York: Routledge. 2011.
  50. Ahi Gh, Mohammadi Far MA, Besharat MA. Validity and reliability of the short form of Young Schema Questionnaire. Psychology & Educational Science. 2007; 36: 5-20.
  51. Hoffart A, Sexton H, Hedley LM, Wang CE, Holthe H, Haugum JA, et al. The structure of maladaptive schemas: A confirmatory factor analysis and a psychometric evaluation of factor-derived scales. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2005; 29: 627-644.
  52. Abedini Z, Mirnasab MM, Fathi Azar E. A comparative study of early maladaptive schemas, behavioral problems and self-esteem between single parent and two parent female adolescents. Global Journal of Human-Social Science: G Linguistics & Education. 2017b; 17: 71-78.
  53. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1983; 24: 385-396.
  54. Mills SD, Azizoddin D, Racaza GZ, Wallace DJ, Weisman MH, Nicassio PM. The psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale-10 among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2017; 26: 1218-1223.
  55. Khalili R, Sirati Nir M, Ebadi A, Tavallai A, Habibi M. Validity and reliability of the Cohen 10-item Perceived Stress Scale in patients with chronic headache: Persian version. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2017; 26: 136-140.
  56. Andreou E, Alexopoulos EC, Lionis C, Varvogli L, Gnardellis C, Chrousos GP, et al. Perceived Stress Scale: reliability and validity study in Greece. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011; 8: 3287-3298.
  57. Safaei M, Shokri O. Assessing stress in cancer patients: factorial validity of the Perceived Stress Scale in Iran. Iranian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing. 2014; 2: 13-22.
  58. Almadi T, Cathers I, Hamdan Mansour AM, Chow CM. An Arabic version of the Perceived Stress Scale: translation and validation study. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2012; 49: 84-89.
  59. Wang Z, Chen J, Boyd JE, Zhang H, Jia X, Qiu J, et al. Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Perceived Stress Scale in Policewomen. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6: 1-4.
  60. Yu R, Ho SC. Psychometric evaluation of the perceived stress scale in early postmenopausal Chinese women. Psychology. 2010; 1: 1-8.
  61. Reis RS, Hino AAFH, Añez CRR. Perceived Stress Scale: reliability and validity study in Brazil. Journal of Health Psychology. 2010; 15: 107-114.
  62. Orücü MC, Demir A. Psychometric evaluation of perceived stress scale for Turkish university students. Stress and Health. 2009; 25: 103-109.
  63. Ramírez MTG, Hernández RL. Factor structure of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) in a sample from Mexico. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 2007; 10: 199-206.
  64. Remor E. Psychometric properties of a European Spanish version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 2006; 9: 86-93.
  65. Sumi K. Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Perceived Stress Scale. Japanese Journal of Health Psychology. 2006; 19: 44-53.
  66. Lewinsohn PM, Joiner TE, Jr, Rohde P. Evaluation of cognitive diathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2001; 110: 203-215.
  67. Moilanen DL. Validity of Beck's cognitive theory of depression with non-referred adolescents. Journal of Counseling & Development. 1995; 73: 438-442.
  68. Weeks JW. Replication and extension of a hierarchical model of social anxiety and depression: fear of positive evaluation as a key unique factor in social anxiety. Cognitive behavioral therapy. 2015; 44: 103-116.
  69. Calvete E. Emotional abuse as a predictor of early maladaptive schemas in adolescents: contributions to the development of depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2014; 38: 735-746.
  70. Orue I, Calvete E, Padilla P. Brooding rumination as a mediator in the relation between early maladaptive schemas and symptoms of depression and social anxiety in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence. 2014; 37: 1281-1291.
  71. Sharak FM, Bonab BG, Rabiee A. Behavior problems of students of single-parent and two-parent families from teachers’ perspective. Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health. 2016; 3: 87-96.
  72. Givi HG, Chomachaei BK. Comparison of social skills, mental health and academic performance in children with divorced, divorcing and intact parents. Journal of Family Research. 2016; 12: 69-92.
  73. Ferdowsi Z. Compare of self-differentiation in adolescents between family structure single parent (mother) and core family. New Advances in Behavioral Sciences. 2016; 1: 13-25.
  74. Amato PR. The impact of family formation change on the cognitive, social, and emotional well-being of the next generation. Future Child. 2005; 15: 75-96.
  75. Amato PR. The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Journal of Marriage and Family. 2010; 62: 1269-1287.
  76. Ganesha A, Venkatesan S. Comparative profiles of problem behaviors in children from single versus dual parent families. Journal of Psychology. 2012; 3: 89-98.
  77. Ahmadi EP, Jalali M, Abedin AR, Roshan-Chesli R. Comparison study of affective-behavioral disorders and academic performance between fatherless and normal 7-11 years old children. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2009; 1: 51-59.
  78. Keramati K, Bolhari J, Asgharnejad Farid A. Effect of father loss on behavioral disorders in primary school children. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice. 2007; 12: 390-395.
  79. Shenoy DP, Lee C, Trieu SL. The mental health status of single-parent community college students in California. Journal of American College Health. 2016; 64: 152-156.
  80. Inthorn S. Parent-child attachment in single parent families. [Thesis for Master of Psychology]. [Leiden, Holland]: Faculty Social and Behavioral Sciences, Leiden University. 2015.
  81. Poorbonab MS, Arshady FK. Behavioral disorder in adolescent girls with single parent. Journal of Applied Environment and Biological Sciences. 2015; 5: 798-802.
  82. Scharte M, Bolte G. Increased health risks of children with single mother: the impact of socio-economic and environmental factors. European Journal of Public Health. 2013; 23: 469-475.
  83. Eitle D. Parental gender, single-parent families, and delinquency: Exploring the moderating influence of race/ethnicity. Social Science Research. 2006; 35: 727-748.
  84. Weitoft GR, Hjern A, Haglund B, Rosen M. Mortality, severe morbidity, and injury in children living with single parents in Sweden: a population-based study. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2003; 361: 289-295.
  85. Tichovolsky MH. Parenting and parent predictors of changes in child behavior problems. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [Massachusetts, USA]: University of Massachusetts. 2011.
  86. Pike LT. The adjustment of Australian children growing up in single parent families as measured by their competence and self-esteem. Childhood. 2003; 10: 181-200.
  87. Mohebirad Z. Comparison of parental schemas, parenting styles, and behavioral disorders of children in single-child and multiple-child families. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [School of Psychology, and Social Sciences, Tehran, Iran]: Azad Islamic University, Centre Tehran. 2013.
  88. Sadeghi M, Roshannaie S. The role of family population on the psychological dimensions of children: hope, resiliency, and differentiation. Educational Cultural Quarterly of Women and Family. 2016; 11: 99-121.
  89. Karimiyan Z, Shahbazirad A, Kermanshahi MH. A comparison of the social cognition of 5 to 7 years old girls' of families with one child vs. families with more than one child in Isfahan city. Social Cognition. 2016; 4: 22-34.
  90. Nielsen MG, Ørnbøl E, Vestergaard M, Bech P, Larsen FB, Lasgaard M, et al. The construct validity of the Perceived Stress Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2016; 84: 22-30.
  91. Tazangi MR. Comparison of emotional autonomy, and attachment of single-child and multiple-child families’ adolescents of employed and non-employed mothers in Shiraz city. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [Shiraz, Iran]: Azad Islamic University, Marvdasht branch. 2013.
  92. Shahim S. Relationship of parental styles, and behavioral disorders of children in single-child and multiple-child families. [Thesis for Master of Science]. [Shiraz, Iran]: Azad Islamic University, Marvdasht branch. 2013.
  93. Usakli H. Comparison of single and two parent’s children in terms of behavioral tendencies. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2013; 3: 256-270.

Citation:Mastari Farahani S and Asgharnejad Farid AA. The Comparison of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Perceived Stress between Iranian Single-Parent and Single-Child Adolescents. Austin Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018; 3(1): 1009.