Heritage Non Timber Forest Product Use and Management by Indigenous Community in Northeastern Himalayan Hotspot, Arunachal Pradesh, India

    

    

    Figure 2:  Contribution of various forms of recorded plants to NTFPs in the
state indicating the highest contribution of trees while of the lowest is the
epiphytes.
    
    

Cross Cultural Use

More than 5 tribes are using Acorus calamus, Centella asiatica, Gynocardia odorata, Paedaria foetida, Zanthoxylum armatum and Zingiber officinale (Table 3). Even more popular are Ageratum conizoides, Clerodendron colebrookianum, Houttuynia cordata and Spilanthes paniculata being used by ten or more tribes [2,8-10,19- 23,25-39 etc.]. Most popular plant Ageratum conizoides is used by Adi, Aka, Apatani, Galo, Idu, Lisu, Monpa, Memba, Padam, Singpho, Tagin, and Tangsa. Other very popular plants among the Arunachal tribes are Clerodendron colebrookianum (Aka, Adi, Apatani, Idu, Hill Miri, Memba, Monpa, Nyishi and Miji), Houttuynia cordata (Adi, Apatani, Bugun, Galo, Lisu, Mishing, Monpa, Nyishi Singpho and Padam) and Spilanthes paniculata (Adi, Aka, Apatani, Idu, Khampati, Memba, Nyishi, Padam and Tangsa). The use of some medicinal plants for the same purpose by more than one community might indicate their pharmacological effectiveness. A survey on the pharmacological properties of medicinal plants revealed the presence of bioactive compounds in many species which could be attributed to pharmacological effectiveness of plants used by the tribal community for treating various ailments [21].

However, the same plant could be used for the treatment of different ailments by different tribes [26]. For example, Centella asiatica was used by 9 groups (Bodo Kachari, Jaintia, Apatani, Chutia, Mishing, Bodo Rajbongshi and Rangias, and Lushai) distantly located within and outside the state (Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, and AP) for different disorders like, gastric trouble, eye injury, cholera, dysentery, leprosy, tuberculosis, asthma, deworming etc. Although there are several similar examples available within the tribes of AP, just one is narrated here for the sake of brevity. Clerodendron colebrookianum is being used by Apatani, Nyishi, Idu, Aka, Monpa, Adi, Hill Miri, Memba, Nyshi, and Miji for reducing blood pressure, as anthelmintic, in the treatment of diarrhea, cough and cold, liver disorders, cure of headache etc. Such a wide range of use indicates the presence of different elements responsible for curing different problems. Some experimental evidences suggest that leaves of Clerodendron colebrookianum possess antihypertensive agent, significant anthelminthic properties [40], hepatoprotective efficiency [41], antiperoxidative and lipid lowering activity to treat hypercholesterolemia [42] etc. Additionally, phytochemical screening of Clerodendron colebrokianum showed the presence of different types of compound like alkaloids, carbohydrate, phenols and flavonoids, and saponin, which might be responsible for antioxidant and antimicrobial activity [43]. Similar to this almost all the medicinal plants have definite ailment protective potentiality, and there is a valid scientific basis for consuming it for better health in NE region of India. Since it is beyond the scope of text to give details of >565 medicinal plants used by the AP communities, only High and Moderate Demand Plants (Table 3) are presented with their properties, uses and important phytochemicals (Table 6).

Use Options

The local inhabitants of the state have their own customs, traditions and medicinal system. They mainly depend on forests and forest products for their daily living [22]. However, usage and application differ from locality to locality and community to community [44]. Their dependence on forests is primarily for supplentary food requirements and medical care from the NTFPs in various form. NTFPs include medicinal plants, wild edible plants, fuel wood, fodder and forage, house building and thatching materials, spices, coloring materials, fibers, rubber, beverages and narcotics, latex, tannin, resin etc. [37]. Some of these forest products are collected throughout the year while some others are collected seasonally for one to six months.

Food supplement and famine food

Other than traditional food items, like rice, wheat, millets, etc. the indigenous community have a treasure of knowledge about potential food plants in the forests. These are different components of herbs, shrubs and trees like, leaves, stems, bark, roots, fruits of wild plants and a number of animals and insects gathered as food items [7]. Green vegetables, including fruits, are part of traditional food habits, mainly used as an essential complement to the daily diet, providing vitamins, minerals, fibres, specific aminoacids and other active metabolites [45]. These substances eventually scale up the dietary balance and simultaneously alleviate hunger and malnutrition problems [46]. To achieve this, besides growing a few crops, the indigenous community frequently collects diverse wild edible plants and other plants from natural habitats to meet their subsistence needs [47]. There is a long list of food plants to meet the requirement (Table 2a, 2b), however, there are some specific plant products which are consumed as food during a period of crisis. During famines people throughout the world depend on unconventional plant items to satiate their hunger and meet their nutritional needs. The unconventional food plants are also medicinal plants and thus can play a role in satiating hunger, meeting nutritional needs, and serving therapeutic purposes [48]. Rhizome of Angiopteris evecta is used as famine food by Adi [32] and stem of Wallichia densiflora is used to extract flour by Galo/Nishi/ Tagin [12]. Bombax ceiba and Ficus hispida [25,48] and Colocacia esculenta and Manihot esculenta [20] are other famine food.

Health care

The traditional communities of the Northeast have built a precious knowledge base about the use of rich bioresources of the region over hundreds of years [6]. They have a strong heritage of herbal remedies which is an integral part of indigenous culture [26]. Each tribal group has a particular indigenous medical culture or ethno - medicine knowledge and practices for curing various ailments [22]. Some notable progress has been made in the field of ethnomedicinal research on the tribes of AP during last two decades (Table 1), still many tribes are yet to be explored [7]. More than 565 plant species have been recorded out of which the ten most popular medicinal plants, among various tribes, are Acorus calamus, Ageratum conizoides, Centella asiatica, Clerodendron colebrookianum, Gynocardia odorata, Houttuynia cordata, Paedaria foetida, Spilanthes paniculata, Zanthoxylum armatum and Zingiber officinale. These tribes are Adi, Aka, Apatani, Galo, Hill Miri, Idu, Khampati, Lisu, Memba, Miji, Monpa, Nyishi, Padam, Singpho, Tagin, Tangsa and Wancho.

Past studies have primarily focused on listing vernacular names of plants and their traditional medicinal uses with some information on botanical aspects. However, there is only one record [27] on traditional ethno pharmacological practices, documenting medicine preparation by mixing multiple plant products of different species, involving 24 medicines and their procedures of preparation by the Monpa tribe. This document describes the name of medicinal plants used in combination and the mode of preparation of different types of medicines (mixture, pills, decoction, paste, powder, syrup etc.) by traditional healers. It also details the proportion of used plant parts expressed in bray (1 bray or bowl contains approximately 900 g of grain).

Ethnoveterinary products

Ethnoveterinary is the traditional knowledge regarding use of plants and plant products for treatment of animals [49]. Elsewhere in the country and abroad, ethnoveterinary research has lead to important results [50] and important plants like Bambusa vulgaris, Plantago major, Citrus limoni, Carica papaya etc. have proved to be good for animal healthcare. The indigenous people of AP have developed a veterinary medicine system to treat certain ailments of their livestock. Aconitum fletcherianum, Acorus calamus [20], Elsholtzia blanda [39] are some examples of such plants used by Arunachal tribes. Monpa ethnic group use the leaves of Cannabis sativa to cure dysentery and diarrhea in cattle and goats [35]. The stem of wild Musa paradisiaca is given to cattle particularly during pregnancy to enhance the yield of milk. A paste obtained from the whole plant of Plantago major and Ageratum conyzoides is commonly tied to the affected portions of cattle and goat for relief from severe pain and inflammations. Ripe pods of Gymnocladus assamicus are soaked in water and used as disinfectant for cleaning wounds and parasites like, leeches and lice on the skin of livestock. Such limited records of ethnoveterinary use of plants appear to be a case of under-reporting as there is no literature from AP in major journals. A list of twenty plant resources for ethnoveterinary use has been published from a neighbouring state [51]. Most of these plants are found in abundance in AP and are used as NTFP for various other purposes. Some such common plants are Bauhinia verigata, Embelia ribes, Rubia cordifolia, Rubus ellipticus, Schima wallichii etc. Adi, Apatani, Bugun, Galo, Miji, Monpa, Nyishi and Tagin are known to use various plants as fodder for their cattle and pigs [19,20,23,36,39]. Such plants are Begonia obversa, Buddleja asiatica, Colocasia affinis, Cyathea gigantea, Cyathea spinulosa, Ficus hirta, Galinsoga parviflora, Gonostegia hirta, Inula cappa, Musa sapientum, Musa velutina, Persicaria bartata, Phrynium pubinerve, Plantago erosa, Pouzolzia sanguine, Rumex nepalensis, Spondias axillaries, Taxus wallichiana, Thysanolaena maxima and Wallichia disticha.

Shelter and energy plants

The secondary requirement of shelter construction is met with nontimber species like, bamboos, canes and other fiber yielding species growing in nearby areas. Several varieties of bamboo (Arundinaria maling, Arundinaria racemosa, Bambusa pallida, Bambusa spinosa, Bambusa tulda, Chimonobambusa callosa, Chimonobambusa hookeriana, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Neomicrocalamus manii, Phyllostachys bambusoides, Phyllostachys manii, Schizostachyum helferie and Schizostachyum pergracile) and cane (Calamus acanthospathus, Calamus erectus, Calamus flagellum, Calamus leptospadix, Calamus tenuis, Chimonocalamus griffithianus and Plectocomia himalayana) are known to be used by Aka, Apatani, Hill Miri, Lisu, Miji, Monpa and Nyishi [2,19,20,23,31,37]. Crooked bamboo from conjusted clumps and small wood from the branches and saw waste of different tree species (Alnus nepalensis, Castanopsis hystrix, Castanopsis indica, Castanopsis tribuloides, Cinnamomum bejolghota, Cinnamomum caudatum, Corylopsis himalayana, Exbucklandia populnea, Ficus fistulosa, Gnaphalium affine, Magnolia champaca, Magnolia oblonga, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus griffithii, Quercus lamellosa, Quercus lanata, Sageretia filiformis and Schima wallichii) are used as fuel wood by Aka, Adi, Apatani, Hill Miri, Monpa, Sherdukpen, Tagin etc. [2,19,20,23,31,39].

Plants of cultural value

There is a close relationship between the forest and religious practices of ethnic communities. They believe that natural objects like mountains, hills, rivers, ponds, the sun, the moon, the earth, etc. are possessed by spirits. Donyi-Polo (Sun and Moon) is the main religion followed by the community of the area. They are god -fearing and believe that every event in their life is guided and controlled by different kinds of spirits. In every religious ceremony they utilize a creeper (Adi) to protect themselves from the attack of evil spirits [7]. Despite intrusion of modern culture and technologies, Apatani are still practicing their rituals, customs, cultures, etc. They have been using and conserving selected plant species, which are associated with traditional rituals and festivals. The plants that are used for festivals like Myoko, Murung, Dree etc. are also used for other rituals and ceremonies where altar (Agyang) making and chanting are performed. More specifically, the species of bamboo, (Phyllostachys bambusoides), cane (Calamus acanthospathus) and Castanopsis spp. are the main plants used for making the altar for any rituals or chanting in marriage, birth or death ceremonies. Species of bamboo and cane are also used during death rituals for making the burial place [11].

Poisonous plants

Fishing and hunting are two of the important economic activities for many tribes of AP. The protein content in their diet depends on wild fishing in the neighbouring rivers and animal hunting. As an exception Apatani practice pisciculture in their paddy fields. However, other tribes use fish poison to kill the free moving fish and then sieve them from running water. This fish poison is extracted from different parts of specific plants. Different tribes like, Aka, Nyishi, Hill Miri, Memba, Monpa, Adi, Apatani etc. follow this practice [2,3,19-21,23,31,35,36,39]. Plants yielding fish poison are Acacia pinnata, Aesculus assamica, Aesculus pavia, Ageratum conizoides, Anamirta cocculus, Canthium dicoccum, Castanopsis indica, Clematis buchaniana, Croton tiglium, Cyclosorus extensus, Dioscorea deltoides, Gynocardia odorata, Persicaria hydropiper, Polygonum barbatum, Polygonum hydropiper, Spilanthes olerecea, Taxus wallichiana and Tephrosia candida. Animal poison producing plants are Aconitum ferox, Aconitum heterophylla, Ariseama consanguineum, Clematis buchaniana, Forrestia mollissima and Trichosanthes bracteata.

Other uses

Other than the major uses, discussed above, there are a few more significant NTFPs, keeping culture, customs and traditions in view. The Apatani make salt using plants (Angiopteris evecta, Cyanthillium cinereum, Dicranopteris linearis, Phragmites karka, Clerodendron colebrokianum, Cirsium interopositum) as raw material [19,31,52]. Several plant products are used to flavor traditional food items [19,20,23-25,36] by Adi (Amomum aromaticum, Amomum dealbatum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Eryngium foetidum), Apatani (Perilla frustescens), Galo/Nyishi/Tagin (Allium cepa, Allium hookeri, Amomum aromaticum, Amomum subulatam, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Coriandrum sativum, Curcuma longa, Perilla frustescens, Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale), Memba (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Elettaria cardamomum), Miji (Litsea citrata, Piper sylvaticum, Rhynchoglossum lazulinum) and Monpa (Amomum maximum, Cinnamomum caudatum, Cinnamomum tamala, Elsholtzia flava, Illicium griffithii, Litsea citrata). There are some more products used as masticatory, rope making, incense material and natural dye (Begonia roxburghii, Daphne papyracea, Engelhardia spicata, Everniastrum nepalense, Eurya accuminata, Juglans regia, Mahonia napaulensis, Miliusa globosa, Parmotrema tinctorum, Pinus wallichiana, Punica granatum, Rubia cordifolia, Rubia manjith, Rubia sikkimensis, Woodfordia fruticosa).

NTFP Management

Commercial plants

The demand for medicinal plants is increasing everywhere, as people are more fascinated by herbal medicine. It is the same case with edible products like fruits and vegetables, due to rising indigenous populations and increasing fascination towards natural products. Indigenous fruits and vegetables represent inexpensive and high quality nutrition sources for the poorer segment of the population. The commercialization of these traditional vegetables and fruits in the domestic markets would result in raising the standard of living, especially in the rural community [53,54]. Therefore, to meet the rising demand of NTFPs, the scientific large -scale cultivation of commercially important medicinal plants and edible products may open up avenues for rural people in terms of greater income. Thus, the systematic and organized cultivation of wild plants and the creation of efficient processing and marketing channels may boost the economic development of this tribal state [34]. Based on local preferences and high commercial feasibility, 18 species (Acorus calamus, Allium hookeri, Allium tuberosum, Cerasus cerasoides, Choerospondias axillaris, Clerodendrum colebrookianum, Clerodendrum glandulosum, Litsea cubeba, Magnolia champaca, Myrica esculenta, Phyllostachys manii, Piper pedicellatum, Pyrus pashia, Rubia manjth, Chimonocalamus griffithianus, Solanum kurzi, Solanum myriacanthum and Zanthoxyllum armatum) are identified for Apatani tribes in Ziro valley [19]. Twenty-nine commercially important species are further identified on the basis of price and production [31] in which some are common to the previous study. On these lines commercially important species could be identified for different localities (at least most commonly used plants, Table 3,4 & 5) and their cultivation and marketing strategy could also be formulated.

Value addition

Value addition to products is well known to enhance the financial outturn. Currently most of the NTFPs are harvested and used fresh by the community, especially food supplements and herbal medicines. Primarily they are consumed at the local level and the surplus is sold in the local market without value addition except in some cases of semi processing. Other than green consumption, dried NTFPs are also stored for some time and consumed as and when needed. A few NTFPs are powdered and stored in wooden/bamboo vessels. Primay level of grading is practiced only by cleaning to remove unwanted dirt from the lot collected in bulk [31]. Only one product Tapyo, a local salt, is manufactured by intense processing by Apatani. Most commonly, the sale of fruits or vegetables is undertaken which provides minimum return due to fairly low shelf-life, low popularity and market costs. Some value addition in the form of pickle, chutney, jam, jelly, etc. may increase fruit shelf-life and economic profit to local communities. This reflects a clear need to diversify the product base and to ensure that wild edible plants fetch higher prices [55]. Product positioning strategy in the market could also be used as added value. Any indigenous product has some attributes (natural, native, traditional, sustainable, herbal, heritage etc.) which are highly valued by the modern consumer since it connects them with something not available easily and everywhere [31]. As suggested by Jha [31] in research on Apatani products, a brand of any indigenous product could be created based on these valuable attributes with an aim to enhance the commercial value of the products. On the line of “Arkiset Aromit” of Finland “Indigenous Flavours”, “Heritage Flavours” “Aboriginal Taste”, “Ethnic Taste”, “Wild Fresh” etc. could be created by promoting wild value and health benefit.

Marketing channels

The surplus production of selected NTFPs by tribal communities in AP are sold in local market and many a times to agents for markets outside the locality [56]. Very few workers [16,19,25,31,54,55,57] have given an account of NTFPs being marketed with the aim of enhancing the earning of the community. Most commonly marketed NTFPs (Table 7) are for medicinal use and supplementary food. Local markets are generally village level markets within the districts, and external markets are outside the districts at regional level or outside the state at interstate level. The market channels are given in Figure 3 as modified from Jha [31]. Apart from village or district level markets, there are three major regional centers in AP, Bomdila in the west, Itanagar in the center and Pasighat in the east. These centers take care of local consumers and work as forwarding centers to interstate markets. There are two more centers in the neighbouring state of Assam, Tejpur and Lakhimpur, which are fed by local collections only. Earlier these two centers were a stronger market when transport and communication was less developed in this area. Guahati in Assam is the most important and major external market (fed by Bomdila, Tejpur, Itanagar, Lakhimpur and Pasighat) which sends the consignment to Delhi, Kolkata and Ahmedabad for end consumption. However, current price spread condition in these markets is not sufficient to create good income for the producers.

Figure 3: Marketing channels of NTFPs produced in Arunachal Pradesh. Local markets and collection centers, (LMCC, ovals), are the primary source to feed first level regional markets (rectangles like, Bomdila, Itanagar and Pasighat; all in Arunachal Pradesh), which in turn are the feeders of interstate markets (rectangle with blunt corners like, Tejpur, Lakhimpur and Tinsukia via Guwahati; all in Assam). Arrows are the levels of transfer agents from source to the consumer end.

    

    

    Figure 3:  Marketing channels of NTFPs produced in Arunachal Pradesh.
Local markets and collection centers, (LMCC, ovals), are the primary source
to feed first level regional markets (rectangles like, Bomdila, Itanagar and
Pasighat; all in Arunachal Pradesh), which in turn are the feeders of interstate
markets (rectangle with blunt corners like, Tejpur, Lakhimpur and Tinsukia via
Guwahati; all in Assam). Arrows are the levels of transfer agents from source
to the consumer end.
    
    

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This could be improved by strengthening the information passage system and changing the informal nature of the market to formal one, if possible [56]. Some of the medicinal and food plants sold in these markets are presented in (Figures 4 and 5).

Figure 4: Plant products consumed raw or cooked as food supplement. First row: Houttyunia cordata Thunb., Diplazium esculentum (Retz) Sw; Second row: Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC, Allium hookeri Thwaites; Third row: Apatani herbal salt making plants Pinging, Babu raru; Fourth row: Piper pedicillatum C. DC, Clerodendron colebrokianum Walp.

    

    

    Figure 4:  Plant products consumed raw or cooked as food supplement. First
row: Houttyunia cordata Thunb., Diplazium esculentum (Retz) Sw; Second
row: Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC, Allium hookeri Thwaites; Third row:
Apatani herbal salt making plants Pinging, Babu raru; Fourth row: Piper
pedicillatum C. DC, Clerodendron colebrokianum Walp.
    
    

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Figure 5: Plant products consumed raw or processed as medicine. First row: Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Spilanthes paniculata Wall ex DC; Second row: Panax pseudoginseng Wall., Paris polyphyla Smith; Third row: Solanum torvum Swartz, Solanum kurzii Brace ex Prain; Fourth row: Wild strawberry, Cardamine hirsuta Linn.

    

    

    Figure 5:  Plant products consumed raw or processed as medicine. First
row: Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Spilanthes paniculata Wall ex DC; Second
row: Panax pseudoginseng Wall., Paris polyphyla Smith; Third row: Solanum
torvum Swartz, Solanum kurzii Brace ex Prain; Fourth row: Wild strawberry,
Cardamine hirsuta Linn.
    
    

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Vulnerable plants

Consumption, harvesting and regeneration of any NTFP mitigates its vulnerability. They could be put into the category of “very low vulnerability, low vulnerability, moderate vulnerability, high vulnerability and very high vulnerability” based on availability status and availability trend [56]. This classification is based on qualitative assessment which could be further strengthened by using some quantitative parameters like actual production/extraction, regeneration period, harvesting method etc. This instrument can be used in making “commercialization plan and conservation strategy” of the NTFPs. Consequently, vulnerable species should be conserved and non vulnerable species could be commercialized. However, a balance needs to be struck between commercialization and conservation by adopting a comprehensive policy based on scientific and traditional knowledge for harvesting and regeneration of NTFPs keeping in mind a minimal impact on the heritage of the tribals. Other than the list of vulnerable Apatani plants [56], currently a list of high value medicinal plants in the higher altitude forests of AP, indicating restricted distribution with high degree of threat is available [16]. This warrants immediate attention for their conservation. Such plants are Campylandra aurantiaca, Coptis teeta, Curculigo orchioides, Gymnocladus assamicus, Picrorhiza kurroa, Panax sikkimensis, Panax pseudoginseng, Paris polyphylla, Saussurea gossypiphora, Swertia chirayita, Swertia hookeri, Taxus wallichiana, Aconitum ferox etc. Out of the various threats observed, improper harvesting, habitat loss and trade are found to be most destructive to the population. Intensive efforts from both in situ and ex situ conservation practices are necessary for sustainable management and conservation of these species.

Conservation threats and efforts

Realizing the ecological importance and economic utility of medicinal plant resources, there is growing concern throughout the world about the need for their conservation [28]. However, a majority of high value medicinal species are faced with a number of conservation threats [16]. Habitat loss is one of the major common threats to all the species, effected by landslides, jhum cultivation, occasional forest fire, human settlement and various other developmental activities like road construction and human habitat expansion. Grazing and trampling by free ranging animals are also the causes of destruction of herbaceous plants [58-60]. Other perceived threats are high volume and unscientific collection, excessive lopping of branches of tree species, maximum collection per unit labour to gain maximum profits [20]. Jha [56] observed that overharvesting is generally due to commercial trading of several species which is detrimental to regeneration. Technological inefficiency of harvesting is also adding fuel to the fire in certain cases. Some conservation measures like (i) conducting awareness campaigns on the importance and vulnerability of threatened medicinal plants, (ii) implementation of improved harvesting techniques with less mortality of species (iii) establishment of a protected area for threatened medicinal plants in their natural habitat, (iv) extensive efforts for both in situ and ex situ conservation involving local communities, (iv) establishment of nurseries through the development of propagation and cultivation protocols and (v) large scale cultivation of prioritized medicinal plants for commercial purposes could be adopted to mitigate the problems [16] other than the specific ones discussed below.

Homegardening and cultivation

Kitchengardens and homegardens are common homestead components of the land management system of tribals in northeast India. Generally, the former is used for growing common domestic vegetables but the latter is a mix of domesticated and wild resources. Most of the tribals collect wild plants from the forest adjacent to their villages and cultivate most preferred species in their homegardens [9]. The Galo community grow local green vegetables and medicinal herbs in their kitchengarden [61]. Traditional homegardens of Nyishi are rich in biological diversity, harbouring many local species including medicinal plants [62]. Nyishi and Apatani are reported to cultivate 23 and 32 species, respectively in their homegardens [17,56]. In Apatani homegardens common vegetables and cereals like, cucumber, millet, pumpkin maize, tomato, lai saag, ginger, soybean, onion, frenchbean etc. as well as perenials like, Pinus roxburghii and Phyllostachys manii are grown for home consumption [63]. It would be difficult for Apatani to continue performing the rich cultural practices for want of different plant products (Angiopteris evecta, Phyllostachys bambusoides, Calamus acanthospathus, Castanopsis hystrix, Saccharum arundinaceum, Eremocaulon capitatum, Zingiber officinalis etc. which they conserve and cultivate [11]. Khampati are also reported to practice homegardening of selected plants (Ananas cosmosus, Carisa papaya, Citrus medica etc.) used as medicine [38].

Although plants used for the preparation of traditional medicine are mostly collected from the wilderness, some expert practitioners have their own herbal gardens that supply the useful raw materials [9]. In general, cultivation technique is known to the individuals and community but some scientific organisations have also worked on nursery and plantation techniques for some important plants like, Asparagus recemosus, Berberis aristata, Curcuma caesia, Desmotrichum fimbriatum, Elaeocarpus sphericus, Embelia ribes, Gmelina arborea, Hemidesmus indicus, Homakomena aromatica, Hydnocarpus kurzii, Rauvolfia serpentina, Rubia manjith, Saraca asoca, and Taxus wallichiana [64].

The Galo take special interest in conserving natural flora and undertake special conservation and afforestation programmes for the maintenance of natural vegetation. The violation of rules in conserving natural resources and biodiversity by individuals is punished by imposing fines [61]. Apatani customary laws have provisioned for specific punishment for example, the offender has to pay (i) twice the cost of destroyed crops and also a fine of one full grown cow to the village authority for trespassing upon the bamboo grove and damaging the crops (ii) a fine of one full grown female mithun and one medium size mithun for burning bamboo garden/ pine grove with ill intention etc. [65].

Aka tribe practice tree management intended at conservation. They collect the saplings or seeds of certain utility trees like, Callicarpa arborea, Duabanga grandiflora, Terminalia myrocarpa etc. and plant them in their homegardens. Certain construction timber trees (Marcus laevigata, Phoebe sp. etc.) are felled judiciously, never in excess. Canarium strictum is never felled for wood, instead fallen wood is collected from the ground. They value Brovje and Miinyin (Xanthoxyllum alatum) trees and care for them by clearing the surroundings to make them competition free and to allow the tree to grow properly.

The tribes of the state have followed their own ethics which has helped them conserve rare and endangered species. They have good knowledge of locating flora and fauna of rare and endangered category and they have been spreading the knowledge to their fellow tribesmen for their conservation [2]. Two unique examples of individual efforts from an Adi woman practitioner and a Nyishi healer need to be propagated to the largest extent possible. The former spreads awareness about the domestication of forest species and trains Adi woman folk for value addition and marketing. The latter has also domesticated valuable plants and made his own homegarden as a demonstration plot. He has also expanded his network by forming an herbalist association. These self-motivated conservators may be provided policy support for creative management of biodiversity [4,66].

The Galo farmers have been using pathological principles for pest and disease control over the generations. They use Citrus grandis (Pummelo) leaves as insecticides and repellents for the control of the rice pest Leptocorisa oratorius and house hold ash as a repellent to control pests and diseases of cultivated crops. A number of traditional traps are used to control of rats in the rice fields [61].

Conservation reserve

There is acute pressure on the natural habitat of medicinal plants due to unsystematic collection. The habitat destruction and overexploitation to meet the demands of illegal trade in medicinal plants [64] has led to the extinction of more than 150 plant species in the wild [67]. Therefore, there should be conservation measures like the establishment of Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas in potential habitat. Medicinal species of important and endemic nature in the region should be protected [16]. Further, local inhabitants need to be aware of conservation and cultivation activities for their socioeconomic upliftment. One such example is the Medicinal Plant Conservation Area at Harkhe Tari in Ziro valley maintained by Apatani. This came up as a government initiative with cooperation from the community and managed by the villagers in order to conserve some valuable medicinal plants like, Panax pseudo-ginseng, Paris polyfolia, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Embelia ribes, Berberis aristata, Rubia manjith etc. [56].

Sacred grove

Throughout India, tribals are known to protect bioresources, plants and animals, owing to religious faith or belief in them. One such common method is the maintenance of sacred groves. These are stands of trees or patches of forests which have remained untouched due to the belief that deities who reside in them bless and protect the local community. The Apatani alone have 70 sacred groves in their eight villages. Every clan of the village is known to possess one sacred grove. Galo and Nyishi are also reported to believe in sacred groves. Other tribes like Monpa and Sherdukpen who practice Buddhism have sacred groves called Gumpa around the monastry. Major species protected in such religious stands of trees are Albizzia lebeck, Altingia excelsa, Alstonia scholaris, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Bambusa pallida, Bauhunia variegata, Berberis aristata, Callicarpa arborea, Chukrasia tabularis, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus palmata, Lagerstromea indica, Macaranga denticulata, Pandanus spp., Phoebe goalparensis, Phyllanthus emblica, Pinus kesiya, Pterospermum acerifolium, Rubus ellipticus, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Trema orientalis, Sauriaria sp. etc. Murtem and Chaudhry [5] have reported the details of sacred groves of four districts belonging to different tribes. Although this type of conservation may not be useful for commercialization of species but it provides a gene pool to be used at any point of time.

Folk belief and taboo

The tribes of AP, except the converted ones, do not practice prevalent religions of India. However, most of the tribes consider that the forest is the abode of their numerous gods and spirits, both benevolent and malevolent in nature [68]. Adis believe that certain trees are the abode of evil spirits, therefore, they do not fell them without performing rituals of sacrificing pig and fowl to appease the spirit. They do not harvest bamboo and cane indiscriminately. Infact big bamboo (Epoeng) is cut only on the fourth dark night of full moon as they believe that on a particular day bamboo borer does not attack it. Certain trees like Tattong, Taapit and Tan have sacred value and are hardly cut as they are believed to be the progeny of the mythical hunter which protects the people from evil spirits. Ridin another sacred plant is perceived to ward off evil spirits. Padam believe that this plant has emerged from the placenta of the mother of all living beings (Pedong Nane) which would guard and protect mankind from any misfortune [69]. They abstain from cutting plants or visiting the area where bamboo shoots sprout after birth of a child and death funerals in order to save new bamboo shoots from damage [70]. Hill Miri do not spit or urinate or throw stones on the sacred plants, such as, Sigrek Sin and Tam etc. believing that the spirits residing in these plants may bring bad luck to them. The felling of Jigymu tree is prohibited for every Aka individual of the village and people worship this tree because it is believed that if anyone cuts this tree he would suffer from dreadful diseases. The same is the case with Syolyen tree which is believed to inflict skin diseases on any individual who tries to cut it. A tree called Pyey is not destroyed by them because of the belief that children might get affected by dysentery, vomiting and swollen tongue [71]. Aka also consider forest lands and water resources sacred and believe that interference with such resources results in loss of life. Extraction of resources and hunting are prohibited in high peak mountain since such acts cause nose and mouth bleeding leading to death. Plucking leaves from trees surrounding the sacred pond is also considered taboo because of the fear of losing the way back home [72]. Such concept of sacred pond is also found among the Khampti where fishing is strictly prohibited and the pond is used during the most important Buddhist festival called Sangken.

Among the Galo a tiger hunter cannot consume certain types of birds, fish, meat and he has to even prepare his own food for a month. Also, consumption of certain things like local onion (Dilap) and ginger (Takee), are taboo for his life time [73]. Similarly, among the Idu, in case someone hunts wild animals then he is prohibited from consuming onion, chilli and some leafy vegetables. He cannot touch and use domestic utensils and cannot prepare the meat inside the house.

Conclusion

NTFPs in recent years have gained a remarkable significance throughout the world in determining the rural economy as well as for the conservation of biological diversity, particularly in the tropical regions [74,75]. Though the existing management module with suggested modification is presented in Figure 6, the following points need attention in AP.

Figure 6: Flow chart depicting current and proposed management of NTFPs in northeastern Himalayan state, Arunachal Pradesh. Dashed arrows indicate current practices while solid arrows are proposed activities intended to improve the livelihood conditions (marketing based, green) and natural resource (conservation and domestication based, red).

    

    

    Figure 6:  Flow chart depicting current and proposed management of NTFPs in northeastern Himalayan state, Arunachal Pradesh. Dashed arrows indicate current
practices while solid arrows are proposed activities intended to improve the livelihood conditions (marketing based, green) and natural resource (conservation and
domestication based, red).
    
    

Close

Ethnobotanical studies in AP have revealed that with growing urbanization, shrinkage of forest area and the influence of modern culture and education, indigenous food habits of local communities have changed [76]. As a consequence, nutritional quality and unique taste of wild food plants are likely to be neglected. It is the same case with herbal medical care being gradually replaced by modern medicine. Therefore, nutritional quality with medicinal value of the wild plants must be established and promoted with innovative marketing strategy as NTFPs are also extremely critical for the livelihood of the rural poor, and often provide the means to close the income gap with wealthier classes [77]. Quantitative improvement in products through silviculture and homegardening, their value addition and market positioning need to be scaled up for commercial species [31,78].

However, there are many potential risks and dangers in the commercial exploitation of NTFPs. The first is overexploitation and the second is greed for profit by the harvester leading to unsustainable exploitation of species [79]. Unrestrained and unmanaged harvesting is known to have a negative impact on the structure and dynamics of the plant population and this can lead to a decline or even disappearance of a species [80-82]. Currently there are certain species facing vulnerability [16,56]. Therefore, NTFP extraction should be well organized and coordinated with harvest guidelines for the sustainability of extraction. Simultaneously, the traditional knowledge of conservation must be integrated with science- based, professionally managed technology. Since traditional indigenous knowledge in the state is on the decline [56,83], commercialization of NTFPs should be done with utmost care emphasizing on prevention and without compromising on the negative impacts. A key feature of a successful approach to NTFP management would be sound monitoring and evaluation of such a programme [81].

Suplementary Tables

www.austinpublishinggroup.com/jpceonline/fulltext/jpce-v2-id1012- table.docx

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Citation: Ebadi H, Ahmadi DN and Sorkheh K. Screening and Identification of Differentially Expressed Genes in Reproductive Stage of Rice (Oryza sativa) Using Digital Differential Display Tools. J Plant Chem and Ecophysiol. 2016; 1(2): 1011. ISSN:2572-4371

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