Most Common Toxic Plants of Turkey to Animals: Classification by Target Species/Systems and Management of Poisoning Cases

Review Article

Austin J Pharmacol Ther. 2014; 2 (7).1039

Most Common Toxic Plants of Turkey to Animals: Classification by Target Species/Systems and Management of Poisoning Cases

Mustafa YIPEL1, Ender YARSAN2* and Fulya ALTINOK YIPEL3

1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

2Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ankara University, Turkey

3Department of Internal Medicine, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey

*Corresponding author: : Ender YARSAN, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ankara University, 06110 Ankara, Turkey

Received: June 02, 2014; Accepted: August 30, 2014; Published: September 05, 2014

Abstract

There are over 30 plants commonly reported to be toxic to animals primarily herbivores Most of them are ornamental garden and house plants in Turkey as in the worldwide. Toxic parts and principles, toxicity and mechanisms, classifying by toxic effects on the systems and/or organs of animals of the toxic plants has been presented in this review. It also aims to provide an ideal manage of poisoning and will be of value to occupations within the scope of animal science. In toxicological cases including plants, administration of the basic principles of treatment has a vital importance as well as history taking and identification of the plant. Some cases are not usually fatal owing to low toxicity of plants or vomiting occurs spontaneously but some results in death if not manage ideally by owners and veterinary specialists. Thus botanical characteristics of plants for identification, applications for decontamination, toxic principles and target systems or organs for diagnosis and procedures of treatment for ideal manage has been also pointed out.

Keywords: Animal; Toxic Plant

Introduction

Bioactive substances called “toxins” have adverse effects that also produce by plants in many forms. Although many of the medical substances produced by plants, some of them have been reported as toxic such as Foxglove and Lily of the valley, which contains digitalis that prevents heart attacks [1-3]. Plants may cause toxic effects or even death as a result of inadvertent exposure by skin contact/absorption, eye exposure and inhalation or accidental ingestion of the plant parts (seed, fruit, root, etc.) while owners usually does not even suspect their toxic nature [3-6]. In considering any chemical synthesized by a plant, it is important to note that there may be marked variability in the amount due to different portions, the age and genetic differences of the plant, climate and soil influence [2,4]. According to the reports of The American Association of Poison Control Centers; about 11% of poisoning cases of small animals are due to plants and 75% to 80% of calls involve dogs, 15% involve cats [3]. According to another epidemiological study (12 year period) on which conducted in Italy by Human Poison Control Centre of Milan domestic animal poisoning by exposure to plants pointed out that 5.7% of total calls related by plants and the most commonly poisoned species was dog (61.8%) and cat (26%) [7].

The Table 1 includes ornamental garden plants such as Pyracantha coccinea, Ilexspp., Cotoneasterspp., Cestrumspp., Rhododendronspp., Taxus baccata, Laburnum anagyroides, Cassiaspp., Loniceraspp., both ornamental garden and house plants such as Cycas, Hemerocallisspp., Nerium oleander, Convallaria majalis, Narcissusspp., Hyacinthus orientalis, Euphorbia spp., Dieffenbachiaspp., Liliumspp., Cycasspp. and others such as Daphnespp., Melia azedarach, Ricinus communis, Viscum album, Aesculus hippocastanum, Cannabis sativa, Nicotianaspp., Alliumspp., Digitalis spp. and also shown in Figure 1 according to their habitats by list number in Chapter 3.

Figure 1: Map of the most common toxic plants habitat of Turkey.






Figure 1:  Map of the most common toxic plants habitat of Turkey.

A patient presented with the history of affected by toxic plant should be considered to have a potentially life-threatening problem [8]. As all such cases the history taking has a vital importance in cases of suspected animal poisoning. The interview must be include the information about poisoned animal (species, breed, sex, age, body weight, reproductive status, medical problems, medications, diet, home, garden and stroll environment), suspicious plant (household or garden plant, the common or botanical name, picture or pieces, shape of leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, color etc., ingested part and quantities) [9]. And identification the plant (toxic principles and parts, clinic effects, target species, systems and organs, antidote or special treatment) is also significant in terms of management of cases. The veterinarian faced with a these kind of cases must immediately evaluate the lifesaving procedures and support [8]. Due to unknown toxic characters of plants by owner and ignored in toxicological evaluation by veterinarians they widely unawares use in the environments such as gardens and houses that also animals live.

In this study, we provide an evaluation of poisonous plant species respect of toxicology by useful information of botanical characteristics of plants for identification. The final objective is to list potential toxic plants of Turkey by target species, system and/or organs and toxic principles for diagnosis. Data could be useful for poison centers to support the animals that ingested suspicious plants and to define the suitable medical treatments rapidly for veterinary specialists such as applications for decontamination.

The Basic Principles of General Treatment

Decontamination [8-13]

  • Flushing with water or sterile saline solution (eye exposure)
  • Bathing and rinsing (dermal exposure)
  • Emesis (<3 hours)

    • Apo morphine:0.02-0.04mg/kg IV, IM, 0.1mg/kg subcutaneous (SC)

    Xylazine: 0.1 mg/kg IV; 0.5-1mg/kg IM, SC Syrup of ipecac: 1-2 ml/kg (dogs), 3.3 ml/kg (cats) per os (PO)

  • Hydrogen peroxide: 1-5 ml/kg POGastriclavage (<2 hours)

    • Water or physiologic saline: 10 ml/kg

  • Prevention of absorption

Activated Charcoal: 2-5g/10-50mlwater/kg PO (q2-4h for 2-3 days)

(Activated charcoal (10-20 %) and cathartics can be combined)

Cathartics (<2 hours): Sorbitol (1-2 ml/kg), magnesium citrate, magnesium sulphate or sodiumsulphate

Enhancement of elimination [8,9,11,13,14]

  • Diuresis

    • Solutions: 130 ml/kg/24h IV (0.9% NaCl and 5 % glucose) Diuretics: Furosemide 5mg/kg IV (q6-8h)

    Mannitol: 1-2g/kg IV (q6h)

  • Peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis
  • Exchange transfusion
  • Blood transfusion
  • Gastrotomy

Symptomatic and supportive care [8,9,11,12]

  • Keeping the airway open
  • Prevention of arrhythmia, hypotension and collapse, manage shock
  • Prevention of convulsion
  • Promoting of acid-base balance
  • Treatment of hypoglycemia, hypothermia, hyperthermia
  • Prevention of acute renal failure and cerebral edema

Toxic Plants(NMS)

Poisonous plants that contain toxic substances of quantities may cause diseases or death in animals [3]. Assessed within this scope, most common toxic plants have been given in Table 1. Depending on the ingestion of these plants, damages in many systems and clinical symptoms occurs. Most toxic of all is Ricinus communis that contains one of the most toxic chemical ‘‘ricin’’ where Melia azedarach is toxic to the largest species of animal species (dog, horse, cattle, sheep, goat, rabbit, rat, guinea pig, poultry, and birds) and the most common target system is gastrointestinal for most of the cases occurs by ingestion [1].

Table 1: Classification of poisonous plants by target species and systems.




  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Daphnespp. [8,9,14-16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
:  Flax    olive, lady laurel, mezereon, mezereum, spurge iauier, spurge orive

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (all species)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system, skin

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially stems and leaves 

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Mezerein (diterpene ester), coumarin (glycoside)

  

  

    
Toxicityand    mechanism 

    
: 20-30 ppm coumarin cause severe coagulation    defects. Vitamin K function inhibiting

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Severe mucosal irritation and inflammation,    hyper salivation, dysphagia, severe abdominal pain, vomiting, bloody    diarrhea, narcosis, muscle twitching

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Activated charcoal and fluid therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Euphorbiaspp. [2,8,14,16,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Poinsettia (E. pulcherrima), crown of    thorns (E. milii), snow on the mountain (E. marginata), pencil    cactus (E. tirucalli), creeping spurge (E. myrsinites), hat    rack cactus (E. lactea), candelabra cactus (E. candelabrum)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others(cattle, sheep, goat)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system, skin

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Leaves, stems and sap

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Diterpenoid euphorbol esters that activate    protein kinase C, which causes cytoskeletal damage and enzyme dysfunction

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Contain blistering compounds that directly    irritate the skin, mucous membranes, and gastrointestinal tract on contact

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, salivation, diarrhea, abdominal    tenderness and, rarely, pyrexia

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, use soap or alcohol    for skin decontamination, anti-inflammatory drugs are indicated in severe    dermatitis and supportive care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Hyacinthus orientalis [8,14]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Hyacinth, garden hyacinth, oriental hyacinth

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (cattle)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system, skin

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Bulbs

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Calcium oxalate crystals

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Mucous membrane irritation

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Gastrointestinal distress, nausea, increased    salivation, vomiting

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Symptomatic care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Ilexspp. [11,14]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Gall berry, Japanese holly, inkberry, possum    haw, yaupon,

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially berries and leaves

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Ilicin, ilexanthin, ilicic acid (saponins),    cyanogenic glycosides and  caffeine,    theobromine (methylxanthines)

  





  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
:20 berries can be fatal in a large dog

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, salivation

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Activated charcoal, fluid therapy and    supportive care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Loniceraspp. [2,9,11,14]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Honeysuckle, woodbine, twin berry, black twin    berry (L. involucrata), Common honeysuckle (L. peirclymenum),    Trumpet or coral honeysuckle(L. sempervirens), Fly honeysuckle(L.    xylosteurn), Perfoliate honeysuckle (L. caprifolium)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially berries 

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Valerianic acid,xylostein

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
:Low toxicity

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, depression    and lethargy

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, activated charcoal,    fluid therapy and supportive care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Melia azedarach [2,9,14,16,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Chinaberry, Persian lilac, pride of India,    Ceylon mahogany, Texas umbrella tree, white cedar, paraiso, piocha, beed    tree, bead tree, China tree, Chinese umbrella, hoop-tree, cape lilac, cape    syringe

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others(horse, cattle, sheep, goat,    rabbit, rat, guinea pig, poultry)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal and nervous  system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Leaves, bark, flowers especially berries

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: MeliatoxinsA1, A2, B1, B2  (limonoid tetranorterpenes)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 5-6 drupe (0.6-0.7 g/kg) (small dogs)

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness,    ataxia, depression, convulsions

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Activated charcoal, narcotic antagonists,    sedatives and fluid therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Narcissusspp. [11,14,16,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Daffodil, narcissus, jonquil, paper white

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts, leaves especially bulbs

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Lycorine (also known as narcissine) and  other 15 phenanthridine alkaloids

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 15 g of bulbs. A portion of one bulb may be    toxic or lethal to small animals. 

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Gastrointestinal distress, nausea, increased    salivation, vomiting

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis, activated charcoal, atropine, fluid    therapy, sucralfate and diazepam if necessary

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Rhododendronspp. [9,11,14,16,17,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Azalea, mountain rosebay, red laurel, great    laurel, white laurel.

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (cattle, sheep, goat,    lama, donkey, kangaroo)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal and    cardiovascular system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially flowers, nectar

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Grayanotoxins I, II, III (andromedotoxin,    rhodotoxin, acetylandromedol) (cardioactive diterpenoids)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 0.2% of bw leaves (7 mg/kg bw of    grayanotoxin I for dogs)

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Hyper salivation, excitation, vomiting,    diarrhea, bradycardia, arrhythmias, hypotension, weakness, ataxia, paralysis,    coma

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, activated charcoal,    cardiac monitoring and atropine for cardiovascular    effects

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Ricinus communis [2,8,9,14,16,18,18]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Castor bean, castor oil plant, higuerilla,    palmachristi

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others (poultry, wild fowl, pig,    horse, sheep, and goat)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially seeds

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Ricin and ricinin (toxalbumin)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
:1 mg ricin/g seed (rat, dog).Protein synthesis inhibition and cell death

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Abdominal pain, hemorrhagic diarrhea,    dehydration, circulatory collapse

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Apomorphine foremesis or gastric lavage, activated    charcoal and fluid therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Viscum album [8,11,14,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Mistletoe

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Gastrointestinal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially berries

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Viscotoxins; viscumin (toxalbumin), 

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Low toxicity. Protein synthesis inhibition

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Gastrointestinal upset, nausea, vomiting,    diarrhea and hypotension

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage and fluid therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Aesculus hippocastanum [11,14,16,20]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Horse chestnut, conker

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (cattle, sheep, horse,    mule, pig, monkey, fish, birds, bee, exotic, and laboratory animals)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Nervous and    gastrointestinal system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Nuts, twigs, flowers, leaves

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Esculin (coumarin glycoside), escin (saponin), frangula    (anthraquinone)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
:1-2 seed (small animal), 20 seed    (horses).Mechanism is unknown

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Enteritis, excitement, ataxia, muscle    twitching, seizures, recumbence, death

  





  

    
Treatment 

    
: Activated charcoal with a laxative, fluid    therapy and diazepam if necessary

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Cannabis sativa [8,14,4,9,15,20]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Marijuana, Indian hemp, hashish, ganja, dagga

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Nervous system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Leaves, flowers, seeds

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other    cannabinoid compounds

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Low toxicity.50-100 mg/kg bw.    9-tetrahydrocannabinol produces the high in the central nervous system is    mediated through a G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptor.

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Depression, dizziness, hypersensitivity to    different stimuli, muscle tremors.

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Treatment is rarely necessary, activated    charcoal, emetics, purgatives, and maintaining body warmth

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Laburnum anagyroides [2,9,11,14,16] 
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Laburnum, bean tree, golden chain tree, golden    rain tree

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others (cattle, horse, pig)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Nervous system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially seeds

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Cytisine (quinolizidine alkaloid);

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Low toxicity.6 g/kg of seeds is fatal    (dogs).Binds strongly to nicotinic receptors, and at higher    doses blockade of the ganglionic receptors 

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Listlessness, muscular spasms and in coordination

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Treatment is rarely necessary, activated    charcoal and fluid therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Nicotianaspp. [9,11,14,16,19,20]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Tobacco, burley tobacco (N. tabacum), tree    tobacco, mustard tree (N. glauca), flowering tobacco (N. alata)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats and dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Nervous system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially leaves

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Nicotine, anabasine (pyridine and piperidine    alkaloids)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 20-100mg is lethal. Rapidly acting depolarizing    agent of sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, diarrhea, tremors, hypertension,    mydriasis, seizures, weakness

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Gastric lavage, activated charcoal, antacids,    fluid and oxygen therapy, urine acidification and sedatives

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Pyracantha coccinea [11,14] 
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Firethorn, pyracantha

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and other (birds) 

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Respiratory system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Berries

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Prunasin (cyanogenic glycoside)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Low toxicity

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Cyanosis, respiratory    failure

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Treatment is rarely necessary, symptomatic care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Cotoneasterspp. [9,11,16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Cotoneaster, service berry

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Cardiovascularand    respiratory system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Bark, leaves, flowers

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Prunasin, amygdalin (cyanogenic glycosides)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Low toxicity. Cyanide combines with iron in    cellular cytochrome oxidase to prevent terminal electron transfer and blocks    cellular respiration 

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Hyperventilation, decreased blood pressure,    hypoxemia-induced convulsions, coma, shock, respiratory failure, death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Sodium nitrite (20% solution, 10 to 20 mg/kg)    or methylene blue (1% to 4% solution, 1 g/100 kg bw). 20% thiosulfate    solution (<600 mg/kg) IV

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Convallariamajalis [7,9,14]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Lily of the valley

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (cattle, sheep)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Cardiovascular system    and liver

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially leaves, berries

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Convalotoxin (cardiac grycosides)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Sodium–potassium–adenosine triphosphatase pump    inhibition

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Lethargy, diarrhea, regurgitation, weakness,    bradycardia, arrhythmias and death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, activated charcoal    with cathartics, serum potassium monitoring and fluid therapy, phenytoin    against arrhythmias and use of digitalis antibody is indicated

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Alliumspp. [2,14,16,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Garlic (A.    sativum), onion (A. cepa)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and other (cattle, sheep, goat,    horse)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Cardiovascular system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Disulfides (n-propyl disulfides,    allicin), trisulfites, thiosulfonates

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 11-15 g/kg/day bw. Erythrocyte membranes    damaging and intravascular hemolysis.

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Heinz body anemia, tachycardia, tachypnea,    lethargy, weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, hematuria or hemoglobinuria

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis, activated charcoal and blood    transfusion in severe anemics

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Dieffenbachiaspp. [2,8,11,14,16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Dumb cane, dumb cane, poison arum, leopard    lily, mother-in-law’s tongue.

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and other (cattle, sheep, goat,    birds)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Cardiovascular system

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially stems, leaves

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Calcium oxalate crystals, oxalic acid

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Mucous membrane irritation, histamine releasing

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Edema of the oral mucous membranes (chewing),    excessive salivation, difficulty in eating-swallowing, vomiting, sounding    weak-hoarse, depression 

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Flushing the skin, eyes or mouth and anti-inflammatory    therapy

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Cestrum spp. [8,9,14,16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Day blooming jasmine, wild jasmine, Chinese    ink-berry (C. diurnum), night blooming jasmine, poison berry (C.    nocturnum)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and other (cattle, sheep, goat,    horse, pig, poultry)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Musculoskeletal    system and liver

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Fruits, leaves, sap

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: 1,25-Dihydroxy-cholecalciferol (calcitriol) (calcinogenic glycosides)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Calcium absorption from the gastrointestinal    tract and bone resorption of calcium increasing and renal calcium excretion    decreasing

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Tissue calcification, weeks, develop a syndrome    of chronic weight loss, stiffness, reluctance to move, lameness and recumbent

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Use of furosemide, prednisolone, saline    diuresis, and calcitonin or pamidronate to decrease serum calcium and    phosphorus)

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Cassia spp. [16,17]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Coffee senna (S. occidentalis),    sicklepod ( S. obtusifolia), twin-leaf senna (S. roemeriana)

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others (cattle, poultry)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Musculoskeletal    system 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially seeds

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Unknown but most species contain quinones

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 1% of bw. lysosomal acid phosphatase activity    increasing in muscle

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Muscle weakness, in coordination, reluctance to    move, recumbence, diarrhea, myoglobinuria, white to whitish-yellow areas of    skeletal muscle, necrosis of skeletal, cardiac muscle, centrilobular necrosis

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Prolonged supportive care. 

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Hemerocallisspp. [2,9,14,16,17,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Day lilies 

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Kidneys 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially flowers

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Un known

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 2-3 leaves or part of a flower can be lethal.    Mechanism is unknown

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Salivation, vomiting, depression, anorexia,    proteinuria, isosthenuria, polyuria, dehydration, renal failure, anuria,    weakness, recumbence, death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, activated charcoal    with a cathartic, fluid therapy, peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis if    necessary. Urine promote productions are unsuccessful

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Liliumspp. [2,9,14,16,19]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Easter lily (L. longiflorum), tiger lily (L. tigrinum), Japanese show lily (L. hybridum), rubrum lily (L.    rubrum), star-gazer lily

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Kidneys 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially flowers

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Unknown

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 2 to 3 leaves or part of a flower can be    lethal. Mechanism is un known

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Salivation, vomiting, depression, anorexia,    proteinuria, isosthenuria, polyuria, dehydration, renal failure, anuria,    weakness, recumbence, death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis or gastric lavage, activated charcoal    with a cathartic, fluid therapy, peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis if    necessary and supportive care

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Vitisvenifera [2,14]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Grape

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Kidneys 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Fruits

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Unknown

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 12-31 g/kg bw (grape or raisin). Mechanism is    unknown but high sugar intake may affects kidney function.

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, dehydration, weakness, collapse,    acute oliguria or anuricrenal failure, increased BUN, creatinine,    hypophosphatemia, hyperkalemia

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis, activated charcoal, fluid therapy,    closely monitoring and peritoneal dialysis if necessary

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Taxusbaccata [8,9,11,16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Yew; English yew

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others (cattle, sheep, deer, horse,    birds, poultry)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Heart 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially aril (fleshy red structure    surrounding the seed)

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Taxines (A, B) (cardioactive glycoalkaloids)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 8 gof    bw (dogs), 0.2%-0.5% of bw (cattle), 0.05% of bw (horse). Ca - Na current    inhibition. Decreased cardiac contractility, marked slowing of atrial and    ventricular rates (Taxine B)

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Ataxia, mydriasis, abdominal pain, hyper    salivation, vomiting, bradycardia,

      
hypotension, hyperkalemia, death 

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Activated charcoal, gastric lavage or    gastrotomy, atropine in bradycardia, pentobarbital or diazepam to control    seizures

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Digitalisspp. [8,9,16,16]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Foxglove, common foxglove, long purples, dead    men’s fingers

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (livestock)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Heart 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts 

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Digitoxin, digoxin (cardenolides) 

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: Na+/K+ ATPase enzymes inhibition. At low doses,    myocardial function is improved, but at high doses cardiac conduction is    impaired with resulting arrhythmias, heart block and death

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, lethargy,    bradycardia, ventricular arrhythmias; hyperkalemia

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Induced emesis contraindicated because of vagal    effects, gastric lavage or  activated    charcoal with cathartics, serum potassium monitoring and fluid therapy,    phenytoin against arrhythmias and use of digitalis antibody is indicated

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Nerium oleander [8,9,14,17]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
: Oleander, rose laurel, laurel Colorado.

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Cats, dogs and others (cattle, sheep, goat,    horse, birds, lama)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Heart 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: All parts especially leaves, stems, roots

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Oleandrin (cardenolide cardiac glycoside),

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
: 0.005% of bw. Na+/K+ ATPase enzymes inhibition.    At low doses, myocardial function is improved, but at high doses cardiac    conduction is impaired with resulting arrhythmias, heart block and death

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, diarrhea, bradycardia, arrhythmias,    hyperkalemia, sudden death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Induced emesis contraindicated because of vagal    effects, gastric lavage or  activated    charcoal with cathartics, serum potassium monitoring and fluid therapy,    phenytoin, atropine or propanalol against arrhythmias and use of digitalis    antibody is indicated

  

  

    
    
      
      
        
    1. Cycasspp. [2,9,14,17]
      2. 
      
    
    

  

  

    
Common name(s) 

    
:Cycad, sago palm, leather leaf palm, Japanese    fern palm

  

  

    
Target specie(s) 

    
: Dogs and others (cattle, sheep)

  

  

    
Target system(s)/organ(s) 

    
: Liver 

  

  

    
Toxic part(s) 

    
: Seeds

  

  

    
Toxic principle 

    
: Cycasin, neocycasin A and B, macrozamin    (glycosides)

  

  

    
Toxicity and    mechanism 

    
:The toxic aglycone methylazoxymethanol (MAM)    produce from the glycosides, which alkylates DNA and RNA causing severe    hepatic necrosis and also carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic

  

  

    
Clinical    sign(s)

    
: Vomiting, diarrhea, ataxia, seizures, coma,    death

  

  

    
Treatment 

    
: Emesis, activated charcoal, sucralfate, H2 blockers such as cimetidine, 5% dextrose therapy and blood transfusion if    necessary

      
 

  









Table 1:  Classification of poisonous plants by target species and systems.

Conclusion

Although not all are fatal, the poisonous cases are increasing with parallel widespread use in houses, gardens or landscapes. While it is vitally important for both owners and veterinarians which plants are potentially toxic and the management of the cases is not well known due to the limited publications. One of the most significant parts of the management is the identification of the plant. This has a vital importance because of provides information such as which toxic principles have, how kind of effects on which systems or organs and is there any antidote or special treatment. Diagnosis of plant poisoning is usually difficult wherefore cases often has not specific clinical signs and may not observed the exposure except chewed or remnants of plants in vomitus. The toxic characteristics of plants must be considered by caution symbols where they use. These properties also must be specified in the label at the point of sale and using. In addition, due to regional differences plays a role on toxicity of plants, poison control centers and professionals must have data on this issue.

References

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Citation: YIPEL M, YARSAN E and YIPEL FA. Most Common Toxic Plants of Turkey to Animals: Classification by Target Species/Systems and Management of Poisoning Cases. Austin J Pharmacol Ther. 2014; 2 (7).1039. ISSN: 2373-6208.