Association of Hypothyroidism with High Non-HDL Cholesterol and Ankle Brachial Pressure Index in Patients with Diabetes: 10-Year Results from a 5780 Patient Cohort. A Need for Intervention

Research Article

Annals Thyroid Res. 2016; 2(2): 53-57.

Association of Hypothyroidism with High Non-HDL Cholesterol and Ankle Brachial Pressure Index in Patients with Diabetes: 10-Year Results from a 5780 Patient Cohort. A Need for Intervention

Kamran MA Aziz*

Diabetologist, Aseer Diabetes Center, Aseer Central Hospital, Saudi Arabia

*Corresponding author: Kamran Mahmood Ahmed Aziz, Research scientist (Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism) Diabetology Clinic, Aseer Diabetes Center of Aseer Central Hospital, Ministry of Health, P. O. Box 34, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Received: May 17, 2016; Accepted: June 17, 2016; Published: June 21, 2016

Abstract

Diabetes is commonly associated with thyroid gland disorders, especially hypothyroidism. Among diabetic subjects with hypothyroidism there is a need to study biochemical and other parameters for risk of cardiovascular and kidney diseases. In the past, no study was conducted which has demonstrated significant associations of non-HDL-cholesterol and Ankle Brachial Index (ABI) in such patients. This was accomplished in the current study which has recruited a cohort of 5780 diabetic patients with hypothyroidism, during more than 10-years of follow up, with a hypothesis that hypothyroidism could be associated with higher non-HDL-C and ABI measurements. Statistical analysis of this research has demonstrated that subjects with hypothyroidism have significantly higher levels of non-HDL-C as compared to those without hypothyroidism (153 ± 42.7; 95% CI 146.6 to 158.8 verses148 ± 40; 95% CI 142.5 to 151.6; p < 0.001). Right foot ABI was higher among diabetics with hypothyroidism (1.34 ± 0.387; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.56 versus 1.23 ± 0.314; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.26; p < 0.001), as well as for the left foot ABI (1.32 ± 0.375; 95% CI 1.23 to 1.54 versus 1.23 ± 0.371; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.28).

Higher levels of non-DHL-C and ABI are associated with cardiovascular and diabetic kidney disease risk and progression. These conditions when associated with hypothyroidism, carry a higher risk of mortality and morbidity. Hence early intervention and screening is required for diabetic subjects for hypothyroidism, dyslipidemia and ABI for lower limbs, to prevent further complications.

Keywords: Hypothyroidism; Dyslipidemia; Diabetic; CKD

Introduction

Thyroid gland disorders or dysfunctions are associated with changes in insulin sensitivity, insulin resistance and impaired glycemic control [1]. Regarding non diabetic and general population, subclinical hypothyroidism occurs in 5–15% among them and may be a risk factor for the development aortic atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction [2-4]. This has been attributed to several mechanisms, including diastolic blood pressure and dyslipidemia. Additionally, research trials have shown that they have a higher Intima-Media Thickness (IMT) of the carotid artery with left ventricular systolic dysfunction, which worsens during effort and a risk for myocardial infarction; these patho-physiological changes can be reversed with Thyroxine Replacement Therapy (TRT) [5-9].

Hypothyroidism is also significantly associated with altered lipoprotein metabolism and dyslipidemia, i.e., a higher total cholesterol, LDL-C (low density lipoprotein cholesterol) and triglycerides, which in turn is a risk factor for Coronary Heart Disease (CAD) and Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) [10-15]. Additionally, HDL-Cholesterol (HDL-C) is considered as a good cholesterol (as compared to LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, which are considered as bad cholesterol and CAD risk factors). Conversely, non-HDL-C can be derived simply by abstracting HDL-C from total cholesterol, which will give a better index of overall bad cholesterol, a risk for CAD. Recently importance of non-HDL cholesterol as a potential secondary marker of dyslipidemia and CAD risk factor has emerged [16,17]. Previous research trials have not measured non-HDL in hypothyroid diabetic subjects, which calls to conduct such research trial.

Furthermore, extensive research has shown that not only a low ABI (= 0.9) is a predictor of Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD), but an abnormally elevated ABI is also associated with high CVD risk [18- 24]. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that subjects with high ABI have poor prognosis or survival, as compared to those with a normal ABI or low ABI [25]. Similarly, Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) are at higher risk of developing macrovascular disease, especially CAD, cerebrovascular disease, and PAD. A high ABI can be utilized as a simple screening diagnostic test for such patients and a prognostic indicator for CVD and PVD. However, its direct association with hypothyroidism needs to be studied in depth.

Under this research background, the aim of current study was to measure non-HDL cholesterol and ABI among diabetic hypothyroid subjects and to study their significant associations, which until date has not been studied.

Materials and Methods

Laboratory samples collection, and data retrieval

Current study is a prospective, cross sectional and observational cohort study. Present study included the diabetic patients who were on routine follow up in diabetology clinic of Aseer Diabetes Center and referred from primary health care centers to tertiary care diabetic center for routine evaluations and follow up. Study included known type-1 and type-2 diabetic patients. Children (age <13 years), pregnant diabetic subjects, and patients on End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) or on dialysis and with active hepatic disease were excluded from the study. Data were collected for more than 10 years (10 years and 6 month), from August 2005 to February 2016.

Detailed history was taken and physical examination was done to complete assessments. Diabetic patients, who were recently diagnosed (within 3-4 months) with subclinical or clinical hypothyroidism by endocrinology department, and following regularly with diabetologist for diabetes management, were also selected. These patients were labeled as “Hypothyroidism “. Blood pressure, weight and height were measured by standardized methodology. Body Mass Index (BMI) was measured by the formula, weight (kg)/height (m²). BMI = 30 kg/m² was labeled as obesity.

All laboratory measurements were done in fasting state, early in the morning of not less than 12 hours, and were sent to Aseer Central Hospital laboratory.

HDL-C (mg/dl) was measured in plasma by Automated High Density Lipoprotein (AHDL) method by the Dimension® clinical chemistry system and analyzer (Siemens healthcare diagnostics Inc. Newark, DE 19714, U.S.A), an in vitro diagnostic test intended for quantitative determination of High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C). Total cholesterol was measured directly by CHOL method (based on enzymatic procedures), a quantitative determination by the Dimension® clinical chemistry system and analyzer. Then their difference were calculated for the measurement of non-HDLCholesterol (i.e., non-HDL-C = total cholesterol – HDL-C).

Ankle Brachial Index (ABI) was measured by a standardized doppler ultrasonic device or arterial doppler, atys Mèdical Doppler System Inc. USA (approved by FDA). Measurements were carried out on the patients after a 5-minute rest in the supine position. First, Doppler probe (8 MHz) was used to measure brachial pressure in right arm. Then same procedure was applied to right foot pressure (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial artery, whichever was higher). Right ABI was calculated as the ratio of the two pressures (i.e., ABI = brachial pressure / foot pressure). Same procedure was repeated to measure for the right side of arm and foot (left ABI).

All sample requests were entered and retrieved by central computerized network, Natcom Hospital Information System (NATCOM HIS; National Computer System Co. Ltd) [26], a server based hospital management information system interconnecting all departments of Aseer Central Hospital and its diabetes center.

This study was reviewed and approved by the research committee of Aseer Diabetes Center; consent was taken from the participating patients and all methodologies on subjects reported in current study were in accordance with Helsinki Declaration of 1975 (revised in 2008).

Statistical methods

Variables of interest were entered, and all data were analyzed using IBM® SPSS® Statistics version 20 for Windows (SPSS®Inc, USA). All statistical tests were performed by standardized bio-statistical methodologies. Student’s t test was utilized to measure significant difference for the variables among groups (with and without hypothyroidism).

This study was designed to have a statistical power of 90% to detect significant changes. All p-values were two-sided, and p-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

Data for 5780 patients were analyzed for the significant results. There were 3699 (64%) males and 2081 (36%) females in the study with 815 (14%) type-1 and 4965 (86%) type-2 subjects. Obesity was found in 2427 (42%); 1390 (24%) were hypothyroid and were on TRT. These demographic data is presented in Table 1. Data for univariate descriptive statistics is shown in Table 2.

Table 1: Demographic data of diabetic patients.





  

    
Parameters

    
Description with N (%) ; Totals = 5780

  

  

    
Gender

    
Male

    
Female

  

  

    
3699 (64 %) 

    
  2081    (36%)

  

  

    
Type of Diabetes

    
Type-1 

    
Type-2

  

  

    
815 (14%)

    
4965 (86%)

  

  

    
Obesity

    
Obese

    
Non-Obese

  

  

    
2427 (42 %)

    
3353 (58%)

  

  

    
Hypothyroid

      
(on TRT)

    
Yes

    
No

  

  

    
1390 (24%)

    
4390 (76 %)

  










Table 1:  Demographic data of diabetic patients.

Table 2: Variables with Mean ± SD.





  

    
Variables 

    
Mean    ± SD 

  

  

    
Age

    
57.3    ± 14.6

  

  

    
Duration    of diabetes

    
15.7    ± 9.3

  

  

    
BMI

    
28.9    ± 5.5

  

  

    
Total    cholesterol (mg/dl)

    
190    ± 48.8

  

  

    
HDL-cholesterol    (mg/dl)

    
41.4    ± 13.2

  

  

    
Non    HDL-cholesterol (mg/dl)

    
149.23    ± 46.5

  

  

    
ABI    right foot

    
1.237    ± 0.318

  

  

    
ABI    left foot

    
1.243    ± 0.374

  










Table 2:  Variables with Mean ± SD.

Results for the data of grouped variables with mean, ± SD and 95% CI are shown in Table 3, which demonstrates that non-HDL-C values were higher among hypothyroid diabetic subjects as compared to those without hypothyroidism (153 ± 42.7; 95% CI 146.6 to 158.8 verses148 ± 40; 95% CI 142.5 to 151.6). Similarly, right foot ABI was higher among diabetics with hypothyroidism (1.34 ± 0.387; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.56 versus 1.23 ± 0.314; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.26) and with similar results for the left foot ABI (1.32 ± 0.375; 95% CI 1.23 to 1.54 versus 1.23 ± 0.371; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.28).

Table 3: Grouped variables; comparison of non-HDL-C, and ABI (right and left foot) in diabetic patients with and without hypothyroidism.





  

    
Variables    with Mean ± SD (95%CI) 

  

  

    
Non    HDL-C for the subjects 

      
with    hypothyroidism 

    
Non    HDL-C for the subjects

      
without    hypothyroidism

  

  

    
153    ± 42.7

      
(95%    CI 146.6 to 158.8 )

    
148    ± 40

      
(95%    CI 142.5 to 151.6 )

  

  

    
Right    foot ABI for the subjects 

      
with    hypothyroidism 

    
Right    foot ABI for the subjects

      
without    hypothyroidism

  

  

    
1.34    ± 0.387

      
(95%    CI 1.19 to 1.56 )

    
1.23    ± 0.314

      
(95%    CI 1.12 to 1.26 )

  

  

    
Left    foot ABI for the subjects 

      
with hypothyroidism 

    
Left    foot ABI for the subjects

      
without    hypothyroidism

  

  

    
1.32    ± 0.375

      
(95%    CI 1.23 to 1.54)

    
1.23    ± 0.371

      
(95%    CI 1.12 to 1.28)

  










Table 3:  Grouped variables; comparison of non-HDL-C, and ABI (right and left
foot) in diabetic patients with and without hypothyroidism.

Table 4 shows t-tests for the group of variables, i.e., Non-HDL-C, right and left ABI. It is evident from the data that Non-DHL, and ABI values for the right and left foot were significantly different among the patients with hypothyroidism and those without this disease state; all p-values were significant at the level <0.05.

Table 4: T-test for group of variables (Non-HDL-, right and left ABI).





  

    
T-tests    for group of variables 

    
F-statistic 

    
T-statistic 

    
P-value 

  

  

    
Non-HDL-C    levels with and

      
without    Hypothyroidism

    
6.71

    
3.17

    
<    0.001

  

  

    
Right    foot ABI values with

      
and    without hypothyroidism

    
3.73

    
2.1

    
<    0.001

  

  

    
Left    foot ABI values with

      
and    without hypothyroidism

    
3.12

    
2.3

    
<    0.001

  










Table 4:  T-test for group of variables (Non-HDL-, right and left ABI).

Discussion

Hypothyroidism has adverse effects on lipoprotein or lipid metabolism, and has been well demonstrated in medical research; levels of Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol, and triglycerides are found to be higher in hypothyroidism with association of carotid intima-media thickness [27-31]. These changes are also related with worse cardiovascular outcomes and changes in wide variety of clinical parameters [32-37]. Recently is has been also recommended to consider seriously non-HDL cholesterol for reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality as HDL-C is a strong inverse covariate of triglyceride [38,39].

Regarding guidelines for management in dyslipidemia, National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) has recommended a target for LDL-C to be <100 mg/dl in diabetic patients, followed by a target of non-HDL cholesterol <130 mg/dl as a secondary target if triglyceride level remains elevated (>200 mg/dl). American Diabetes Association (ADA) has provided the same recommendation for managing dyslipidemia among diabetic subjects [40,41]. There are several studies conducted in recent years which have shown the importance of HDL-C/non-HDL and its association with ischemic heart disease and nephropathy or microalbuminuria [42,43]. In fact, it is demonstrated that higher levels of HDL-C are associated with lower risk of diabetic kidney disease (microalbuminuria / macroalbuminuria) and cardiovascular risk [44,16].

Non HDL cholesterol can provide a single index of all apolipoprotein-B containing lipoproteins. Furthermore, LDL-C alone is not sufficient to estimate atherogenic risk in patients with elevated triglycerides; LDL-C can be misleading if triglycerides > 400mg/dl. One cohort research trial had demonstrated that non-HDL cholesterol was a better predictor of CVD than LDL cholesterol [45]. In other words, if HDL-C is subtracted from given total cholesterol, the remaining non-HDL-C can provide overall cardiovascular risk index (non-HDL-C = total cholesterol – HDL-C). This technique is usually ignored in general busy clinical practice and should be considered among diabetic and hypothyroid patients.

However, significant association of non-HDL-C with hypothyroidism was not measured in the past research studies. This was achieved in the current research which has shown that non-HDL levels were significantly higher among the subjects with hypothyroidism (153 ± 42.7; 95% CI 146.6 to 158.8 verses148 ± 40; 95% CI 142.5 to 151.6); p < 0.001). This is an alarming fact that patients with hypothyroidism and with diabetes should have dyslipidemia screening at initial diagnosis. If non-HDL-C is higher, especially in the presence of hypothyroidism, treatment to lower lipids should be considered to prevent cardiovascular disease and nephropahty progression.

The ABI is the ratio of systolic blood pressure at the ankle to the systolic blood pressure at the arm and in a normal healthy person is >1.00. However, The ABI might be falsely elevated (>1.3) due to calcification of medial arteries in patients with diabetes, and in such cases, other vascular tests should be performed to rule out PAD / LEAD (peripheral arterial disease / lower extremity arterial disease, respectively) [46].

ABI has been shown to be a strong predictor of subsequent atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, coronary or cardiovascular events, stroke in patients with peripheral arterial disease and also associated with high mortality and morbidity including diabetic patients [47-56].

It was also the aim of the current research to assess the ABI of the diabetic patients who has also the disease state of hypothyroidism. Although there are various studies to show the ABI levels among diabetics, however until date there are no studies which have demonstrated significant ABI difference among diabetic subjects who have hypothyroidism or free from this disease state. Our current research has demonstrated a significant ABI differences (in both lower limbs) among diabetic patients with hypothyroidism. Hence subjects with hypothyroidism have significantly higher ABI as compared to those without hypothyroidism. This was proved to be true with both lower limbs/feet; right foot ABI was higher among diabetics with hypothyroidism (1.34 ± 0.387; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.56 versus 1.23 ± 0.314; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.26; p < 0.001), as well as for the left foot ABI (1.32 ± 0.375; 95% CI 1.23 to 1.54 versus 1.23 ± 0.371; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.28).

These significant associations provide a first demonstration in medical research that diabetic patients with hypothyroidism have higher ABI. This again needs early intervention as higher ABI is a cardiovascular or macrovascular risk and hypothyroidism further aggravates the pathology and has been proved in recent years as well [57].

The screening for ABI and diabetic foot disorders id essential part of initial evaluations, and monitoring diabetes associated diseases. If ABI is found at higher levels, with associated hypothyroidism and dyslipidemia, this should warn the diabetologist or physicians involved in diabetes management that such type of patients are at risk. Hence tight glycemic control with management of associated complications is corner stone’s of multidisciplinary diabetes management.

Conclusion

In the current research cohort, elevated non-HDL-C and high ABI were found to be associated with hypothyroidism. In turn, all of these abnormalities are associated with Cardiovascular and diabetic Kidney Diseases (or CKD). Efforts should be initiated to screen the cases of hypothyroidism, dyslipidemia among diabetic subjects and to initiate the treatment early. Furthermore, it is always required to follow the best available guidelines for diabetes management, and research studies which have followed evidence based methods in medical practice [58-60].

Recommendations

The diabetologists should consider measurement of lipids (especially non-HDL-C) and ABI among diabetic patients. In case of hypothyroidism with dyslipidemia, the management should be aggressive to lower the lipids and to prevent of CAD/CVD and diabetic kidney diseases and their progression.

There is a need to conduct studies at multicenter levels, internationally, to confirm the evidence provided by the current study and to develop guidelines for the management of diabetes with hypothyroidism and dyslipidemia.

Acknowledgement

For the current research paper, corresponding author himself designed the study, reviewed the literature, collected and analyzed the data with paper and medical writing.

References

  1. Pedersen O, Richelsen B, Bak J, Arnfred J, Weeke J, Schmitz O. Characterization of the insulin resistance of glucose utilization in adipocytes from patients with hyper- and hypothyroidism. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1988; 119: 228-234.
  2. Evered DC, Tunbridge WM, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, et al. Thyroid hormone concentrations in a large scale community survey. Effect of age, sex, illness and medication. Clinica Chimica Acta. 1978; 83: 223–229.
  3. Cappola AR, Fried LP, Arnold AM, Danese MD, Kuller LH, Burke GL, et al. Thyroid status, cardiovascular risk, and mortality in older adults. JAMA. 2006; 295: 1033-1041.
  4. Singh S, Duggal J, Molnar J, Maldonado F, Barsano CP, Arora R. Impact of subclinical thyroid disorders on coronary heart disease, cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2008; 125: 41-48.
  5. Luboshitzky R, Aviv A, Herer P, Lavie L. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women with subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2002; 12: 421-425.
  6. Althaus BU, Staub JJ, Ryff-De Leche A, Oberhansli A, Stahelin HB. LDL/HDL-changes in subclinical hypothyroidism: possible risk factors for coronary heart disease. Clinical Endocrinology. 1998; 28: 157–163.
  7. Pearce EN. Hypothyroidism and dyslipidemia: modern concepts and approaches. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2004; 6: 451-456.
  8. Monzani F, Caraccio N, Kozàkowà M, Dardano A, Vittone F, Virdis A, et al. Effect of levothyroxine replacement on lipid profile and intima-media thickness in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double-blind, placebo- controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89: 2099-2106.
  9. Monzani F, Di Bello V, Caraccio N, Bertini A, Giorgi D, Giusti C, et al. Effect of levothyroxine on cardiac function and structure in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86: 1110-1115.
  10. Lam KS, Chan MK, Yeung RT. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, hepatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase activities in thyroid dysfunction–effects of treatment. Quarterly Journal of Medicine. 1986; 229: 513–521.
  11. Kuusi T, Taskinen MR, Nikkila EA. Lipoproteins, lipolytic enzymes, and hormonal status in hypothyroid women at different levels of substitution. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1988; 66: 51–56.
  12. Shin D, Osborne TF. Thyroid hormone regulation and cholesterol metabolism are connected through sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2003; 278: 34114–34118.
  13. O’Brien T, Dinneen SF, O’Brien PC, Palumbo PJ. Hyperlipidemia in patients with primary and secondary hypothyroidism. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 1993; 68: 860–866.
  14. Song SH, Kwak IS, Lee DW, Kang YH, Seong EY, Park JS. The prevalence of low triiodothyronine according to the stage of chronic kidney disease in subjects with a normal thyroid-stimulating hormone. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009; 24: 1534–1538.
  15. Chonchol M, Lippi G, Salvagno G, Zoppini G, Muggeo M, Targher G. Prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 3: 1296-1300.
  16. Genest J Jr. Genetics and prevention: a new look at high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Cardiol Rev. 2002; 10: 61-71.
  17. Howard BV. Lipoprotein metabolism in diabetes mellitus. J Lipid Res. 1987; 28: 613-628.
  18. Kweon SS, Shin MH, Park KS, Nam HS, Jeong SK, Ryu SY, et al. Distribution of the ankle-brachial index and associated cardiovascular risk factors in a population of middle-aged and elderly koreans. J Korean Med Sci. 2005; 20: 373-378.
  19. Criqui MH, McClelland RL, McDermott MM, Allison MA, Blumenthal RS, Aboyans V, et al. The ankle-brachial index and incident cardiovascular events in the MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010; 56: 1506-1512.
  20. ABIC (Ankle Brachial Index Collaboration), Fowkes FG, Murray GD, Butcher I, Butcher I, Heald CL, Lee RJ, et al. Ankle brachial index combined with Framingham Risk Score to predict cardiovascular events and mortality: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008; 300: 197-208.
  21. Resnick HE, Lindsay RS, McDermott MM, Devereux RB, Jones KL, Fabsitz RR, et al. Relationship of high and low ankle brachial index to all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality: the Strong Heart Study. Circulation. 2004; 109: 733-739.
  22. O’Hare AM, Katz R, Shlipak MG, Cushman M, Newman AB. Mortality and cardiovascular risk across the ankle-arm index spectrum: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 2006; 113: 388-393.
  23. Allison MA, Laughlin GA, Barrett-Connor E, Langer R. Association between the ankle–brachial index and future coronary calcium (the Rancho Bernardo study). Am J Cardiol. 2006; 97: 181-186.
  24. Allison MA, Hiatt WR, Hirsch AT, Coll JR, Criqui MH. A high ankle-brachial index is associated with increased cardiovascular disease morbidity and lower quality of life. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51: 1292-1298.
  25. Arain FA, Ye Z, Bailey KR, Chen Q, Liu G, Leibson CL, et al. Survival in patients with poorly compressible leg arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 59: 400-407.
  26. NATCOM Hospital Information System (NATCOM HIS), System Co, Ltd.
  27. Wang F, Tan Y, Wang C, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Song X, et al. Thyroid-stimulating hormone levels within the reference range are associated with serum lipid profiles independent of thyroid hormones. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2012; 97: 2724–2731.
  28. Kim CS, Kang JG, Lee SJ, Ihm SH, Yoo HJ, Nam JS, et al. “Relationship of low density lipoprotein (LDL) particle size to thyroid function status in Koreans,” Clinical Endocrinology. 2009; 71: 130–136.
  29. Kim SK, Kim SH, Park KS, Park SW, Cho YW. Regression of the increased common carotid artery-intima media thickness in subclinical hypothyroidism after thyroid hormone replacement. Endocrine Journal. 2009; 56: 753–758.
  30. Takamura N, Akilzhanova A, Hayashida N, Kadota K, Yamasaki H, Usa T, et al. Thyroid function is associated with carotid intima-media thickness in euthyroid subjects. Atherosclerosis. 2009; 204: 77–81.
  31. Gazdag A, Nagy EV, Burman KD, Paragh G, Jenei Z. Improved endothelial function and lipid profile compensate for impaired hemostatic and inflammatory status in iatrogenic chronic subclinical hyperthyroidism of thyroid cancer patients on L-Ttherapy. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology and Diabetes. 2010; 118: 381–387.
  32. Pearce EN. Update in lipid alterations in subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012; 97: 326-333.
  33. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160: 526-534.
  34. Tognini S, Polini A, Pasqualetti G, Ursino S, Caraccio N, Ferdeghini M. Age and gender substantially influence the relationship between thyroid status and the lipoprotein profile: results from a large cross-sectional study,” Thyroid. 2012; 22: 1096–1103.
  35. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR, Kloos RT, Lee SL, Mandel SJ, et al. Revised American thyroid association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2009; 19: 1167–1214.
  36. Chrisoulidou A, Pazaitou-Panayiotou K, Kaprara A, Platoyiannis D, Lafaras C, Boudina M, et al. Effects of thyroxine withdrawal in biochemical parameters and cardiac function and structure in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. Minerva Endocrinologica. 2006; 31: 173-178.
  37. Peleg RK, Efrati S, Benbassat C, Fygenzo M, Golik A. The effect of levothyroxine on arterial stiffness and lipid profile in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2008; 18: 825-830.
  38. Albrink MJ, Lavietes PH, Man EB. Vascular disease and serum lipids in diabetes mellitus. Observations over thirty years (1931-1961). Ann Intern Med. 1963; 58: 305-323.
  39. Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, Best J, Scott R, Taskinen MR, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005; 366: 1849-1861.
  40. Adult Treatment Panel III. Executive summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults. JAMA. 2001; 285: 2486–2496.
  41. Brunzell JD, Davidson M, Furberg CD, Goldberg RB, Howard BV, Stein JH, et al. American Diabetes Association; American College of Cardiology Foundation. Lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic risk: consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Cardiology Foundation. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31: 811–822.
  42. Kamran MA Aziz. Association between Non-HDL and HDL cholesterol with microalbuminuria in patients with Diabetes. Journal of Diabetology. 2013; 1: 4.
  43. Aziz KMA. Association of Microalbuminuria with Ischemic Heart Disease, Dyslipidemia and Obesity among Diabetic Patients: Experience from 5 Year Follow up Study of 1415 Patients. Bioenergetics. 2014; 3: 118.
  44. Molitch ME, Rupp D, Carnethon M. Higher levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a decreased likelihood of albuminuria in patients with long-standing type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006; 29: 78-82.
  45. Cui Y, Blumenthal RS, Flaws JA, Whiteman MK, Langenberg P, Bachorik PS, et al. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level as a predictor of cardiovascular disease mortality. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161: 1413-1419.
  46. Silvestro A, Diehm N, Savolainen H, Do DD, Vögelea J, Mahler F, et al. Falsely high ankle-brachial index predicts major amputation in critical limb ischemia. Vasc Med. 2006; 11: 69-74.
  47. Vogt MT, McKenna M, Wolfson SK, Kuller LH. The relationship between ankle brachial index, other atherosclerotic disease, diabetes, smoking and mortality in older men and women. Atherosclerosis. 1993; 101: 191-202.
  48. Zheng ZJ, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Nieto FJ, Sheps DS, et al. Associations of ankle-brachial index with clinical coronary heart disease, stroke and preclinical carotid and popliteal atherosclerosis: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis. 1997; 131: 115-125.
  49. Newman AB, Shemanski L, Manolio TA, Cushman M, Mittelmark M, Polak JF, et al. Ankle-arm index as a predictor of cardiovascular disease and mortality in the Cardiovascular Health Study. The Cardiovascular Health Study Group. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 538-545.
  50. Zheng ZJ, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Nieto FJ, Sheps DS, et al. Associations of ankle-brachial index with clinical coronary heart disease, stroke and preclinical carotid and popliteal atherosclerosis: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis. 1997; 131: 115-125.
  51. Kuller LH. Is ankle-brachial blood pressure measurement of clinical utility for asymptomatic elderly? J Clin Epidemiol. 2001; 54: 971-972.
  52. Lima DS, Sato EI, Lima VC, Miranda F Jr, Hatta FH. Brachial endothelial function is impaired in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 2002; 29: 292-297.
  53. Abbott RD, Rodriguez BL, Petrovitch H, Yano K, Schatz IJ, Popper JS, et al. Ankle-brachial blood pressure in elderly men and the risk of stroke: the Honolulu Heart Program. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001; 54: 973-978.
  54. Lijmer JG, Hunink MG, van den Dungen JJ, Loonstra J, Smit AJ. ROC analysis of noninvasive tests for peripheral arterial disease. Ultrasound Med Biol. 1996; 22: 391-398.
  55. Abbott RD, Petrovitch H, Rodriguez BL, Yano K, Schatz IJ, Popper JS, et al. Ankle/brachial blood pressure in men >70 years of age and the risk of coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol. 2000; 86: 280-284.
  56. McDermott MM, Mehta S, Liu K, Guralnik JM, Martin GJ, Criqui MH, et al. Leg symptoms, the ankle-brachial index, and walking ability in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med. 1999; 14: 173-181.
  57. Aziz KMA. Association of Hypothyroidism with Body Mass Index, Systolic Blood Pressure and Proteinuria in Diabetic Patients: Does treated Hypothyroid with Thyroxine Replacement Therapy prevent Nephropathy/ Chronic Renal Disease? Current Diabetes Reviews. 2015.
  58. Handelsman Y, Bloomgarden ZT, Grunberger G, Umpierrez G, Zimmerman RS, Bailey TS, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology — clinical practice guidelines for developing a diabetes mellitus comprehensive care plan – 2015. Endocr Pract. 2015; 21: 1-87.
  59. Aziz KMA. Unique glycemic and cardio-renal protective effects of metformin therapy among type-2 diabetic patients: a lesson from a five-year cross-sectional observational study of 1590 patients. Research. 2014; 1: 874.
  60. Aziz KM. Management of type-1 and type-2 diabetes by insulin injections in diabetology clinics - a scientific research review. Recent Pat Endocr Metab Immune Drug Discov. 2012; 6: 148-170.

Citation: Kamran MA Aziz. Association of Hypothyroidism with High Non-HDL Cholesterol and Ankle Brachial Pressure Index in Patients with Diabetes: 10-Year Results from a 5780 Patient Cohort. A Need for Intervention. Annals Thyroid Res. 2016; 2(2): 53-57.