Review Article
Austin J Vet Sci & Anim Husb. 2023; 10(5): 1132.
Systematic Review on Herbal Plants Having Veterinary Ectoparasitic Importance in Ethiopia
Efeson Yasin Biramo¹; Natinael Dawit Kalacho²*; Akeko Abriham Abota³
¹Department Livestock and Fishery, Damot Sore district, Wolaita Ethiopia
²Jinka University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Jinka Ethiopia
³Department Offa District Livestock and Fishery, Wolaita Ethiopia
*Corresponding author: Natinael Dawit Kalacho Jinka University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Jinka Ethiopia. Email: natnael1985@yahoo.com
Received: October 10, 2023 Accepted: November 14, 2023 Published: November 21, 2023
Abstract
Parasitic skin disease in domestic ruminants caused by ticks, lice, fleas, and ticks is one of the serious diseases causing great economic losses to smallholder farmers, the industry tanning and the country in general. Invasion of ectoparasites causes blood loss, irritation leading to skin degeneration and rejection, poor growth, reduced production, reproduction and death. Although ruminant parasites can be controlled using commercial synthetic insecticides, their accessibility and affordability to poor farmers, the development of Their resistance status and profound environmental impact make them less desirable than other alternatives such as medicinal plants. Therefore, there is an urgent need to design an activity to evaluate the mite-killing efficacy of medicinal plants traditionally used against parasitic skin diseases in ruminants and domestic chickens in Ethiopia. The study was conducted from October 2020 to January 2021 using the different search engines. For this study, various ethno botanical and ethno medical survey reports on the ectoparasitic importance of medicinal plants, in veterinary practice conducted in Ethiopia were used. Out of a total of 102 studies, 20 were used in a systematic review. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze data collected. Among the parts of ectoparasitic plants, the leaves are the most frequently used. Sharpening and grinding are the main processing methods for preparation. Phytochemicals were not detected during the search. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the dosage, concentration of the preparation, side effects and phytochemicals present in medicinal plants.
Keywords: Ectoparasites; Acaricides; Efficacy; Green pharmaceutics; Medicinal plants
Abbrevations: CSA: Central Statistics Authority; EVM: EthnoVeternary Medicine; SNNPRS: South Nation Nationality and People Regional State; WHO: World Health Organization
Introduction
Livestock plays an important role in the livelihoods of 70% of the world's resource-poor population, most of who live in rural areas [9]. In Ethiopia, the livestock industry is fundamental to the country's economic development. Livestock production is estimated at 52.13 million cattle, 24.2 million sheep, 22.6 million goats, 44.89 million poultry, 8.73 million horses and 0.99 million camels. CSA, 2012). Small ruminants make up about 30% of the country's total livestock herd and account for 46% of national meat production, 14% of dairy consumption, and 58% of hides production [35]. Animal diseases and poor management practices are major threats to the sustainable livelihoods of resource-poor rural communities [6]. External parasites such as scabies mites, lice, mites and ticks cause serious economic losses to smallholder farmers, the tanning industry and the country in general. They cause intense irritation leading to poor condition, weight loss, reduced milk production or damage to the skin or wool of the sheep and can lead to death. In addition, they are responsible for transmitting diseases to animals or are vectors of disease transmission to many people [52]. In cattle, the parasites cause skin irritation when they suck or feed on epithelial debris and secretions. Scratching and rubbing destroys their fur and damages their skin, and reduces their feeding time. Thumb sucking can cause animals to become anemic and inefficient. Especially malnourished cattle, young calves and calves are the worst affected. Heavy suction parasitic infections can also lead to lameness [53]. Damage caused by the parasite can be mechanical, but the situation is also complicated by the host's response to the presence of the specific parasite, its secretions and excretions [33]. To some extent, the impact of ectoparasites in livestock and the diseases they transmit has been underestimated in the past compared to the impact of major pests such as the rinderpest, and even than the effects of endoparasitic species, as these tend to be more economically important in temperate regions [34].
Traditional medicine is a comprehensive interdisciplinary study of the local knowledge, socio-cultural and environmental structures associated with animal health care and breeding. So to keep animals healthy, traditional healing methods have been practiced for centuries and passed down orally from generation to generation [35]. Herbal medicine has become more popular in the treatment of many diseases because it is believed that green medicine is safe, readily available and has fewer side effects. Like other forms of traditional knowledge, ethnoveterinary knowledge about medicinal plants is not compiled. It is simply passed down orally from generation to generation and is therefore at risk of extinction as the elderly die and the younger generation loses interest in the traditional way of life [42].
In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses traditional medicine for primary health care and more than a third of the population in developing countries do not have access to essential medicines. In Ethiopia about 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine for health care [27]. Lack of veterinary specialists, scarce and irregular supply of veterinary drugs, high cost of equipment and drugs, lack of government veterinary policy, presence of veterinary policy. Counterproductive practices and poor infrastructure are mentioned as some of the main factors leading to farmers in developing countries relying more on ethno botanical medicine than on the current health system [10].
The use of synthetic pesticides in the management or treatment of parasites is becoming a serious global problem due to the development of resistance, non-specific residue products and environmental pollution. The growing concern about environmental pollution due to chemical waste from some synthetic pesticides has paved the way for a “green pharmaceutical” [4]. Researchers are now increasingly cautious about the use of synthetic pesticides and are making considerable efforts to design environmentally friendly research processes to develop safe drugs. Therefore, there is an urgent need for effective chemical control agents that can be used safely to treat animals and humans [42].
The prevalence of parasitic infections varies depending on various factors. In Ethiopia, the reported prevalence of ectopic parasites has ranged from 13.8% to 68.69% in sheep and 7.80% to 58% in goats, respectively [29,31,52]. Furthermore, most modern medicines are expensive and inaccessible to the majority of farmers and ranchers in Ethiopia. Most of them rely on traditional knowledge and locally available materials (mostly botanicals) to control disease in livestock [45]. However, this approach does not work in developing countries. EVP, adopted since ancient times by rural people in many indigenous communities, has been successful in controlling many human and animal diseases, including tick infestations [39].
However, the country's ethno-veterinary practice is affected by acculturation and plant decline due to environmental degradation, deforestation and over-exploitation of medicinal plants [49]. The main variable factors affecting the distribution of plant parasites are agroecology, age, sex, and livestock management/handling. High temperature, humidity and sunlight create conditions for lice to enter. Poor management, nutrition and hygiene conditions as well as poor farmer awareness of the effects of parasites are thought to contribute to the widespread occurrence of infection (Pangui et al., 1994). However, to date, very little ethno-veterinary knowledge in Ethiopia regarding the use of medicinal plants has been properly documented and analyzed. Knowledge on the use of ethno-veterinary drugs is transmitted orally and is at risk of being lost due to technical, socio-economic changes.
• Therefore, the objectives of this study were:Overview of traditional medicinal plants in the treatment of ectoparasites in animals.
• Profile and transfer identified plants to the next generation.
• Record the parts of the plant used for medicinal purposes and the method of preparation
Literature Review
Overview of Traditional Medicinal Plants for Animals
Ethnobotany is a branch of science that studies the knowledge, methods, skills and practices traditionally used to treat various diseases in animals [24]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a medicinal plant is any plant which in one or more of its organs contains substances that can be used for medicinal purposes or are precursors of semi-synthetic processes. Such plants shall have parts, including leaves, roots, rhizomes, stems, bark, flowers, fruits, seeds or seeds, which are used to control or treat disease and will therefore contain medically active chemical fraction. These non-nutritive phytochemicals or bioactive components are often referred to as phytochemicals or phytonutrients and are responsible for the defense of plants against bacterial infections or pests [8]. Ethno-Veterinary Medicine (EVM) is important in Africa and other developing countries because the majority of herders are small-scale farmers and most of them live in rural areas where cultural practices are common (Madge, 1998). In traditional practice, plant extracts are developed by farmers rather than scientists due to lack of funds to purchase synthetic pesticides, forcing them to depend on pest control methods [22].
In traditional veterinary practice, among different plants used in traditional medicinal practice, crushed leaves of the plant Calpurnia Aurea and chopped Dodonea Angustifolia leaves, mixed with water and filtered to treat residual fetal membranes, are used to treat mastitis, dermatophytosis, and dermatophytosis and ectopic parasites [11,46]. The leaf powder of Azardrachta Africana is crushed and mixed with indica water applied topically to treat parasites [14].
Management of Skin Diseases in Animals with Conventional Medicine
Parasitic skin diseases in animals can be prevented and controlled by various synthetic antiparasitic drugs that affect the nervous system of the parasites. Although currently available parasite-killing compounds are classified into different categories based on their chemical structure, most of them have limitations when it comes to targeting the nervous system [8]. Therefore, it is important to look for other drugs with different mechanisms of action. In addition, conventional drugs currently on the market have a number of disadvantages, including an increase in drug resistance and concerns about human and environmental safety. These issues have prompted researchers to seek to develop safe alternative antiparasitic compounds with variable targets of action [44]. Traditional medicine can be used as an alternative to overcome this problem.
The Role of Herbal Medicine in Management of Ectoparasitic Skin Disease of Animals
Traditional medicine has been used in the management of various livestock diseases around the world, especially in developing countries. The use of medicinal plants by traditional medicine practitioners in developing countries has increased. Developed countries are also showing increasing interest in and use of herbal medicines due to public dissatisfaction with the cost of prescription drugs and an interest in reverting to natural remedies. In addition, in Africa, access to insecticides is limited due to unstable economic conditions, leading to higher prices for imported products. In addition, improper use of tick-killers by untrained or unauthorized persons facilitates the development of resistance [17]. If only synthetic pesticides are used, there is a risk of losing the traditional knowledge of using native plants. Although several experimental trials involving in vitro and in vivo studies have been documented on the importance of herbal medicines for the treatment of parasitic skin diseases in animals, this review summarizes only the drugs commonly used by herbalists.
Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Ectoparasite
(Table 1)
Scientific name
Family name
Part used
Preparation methods
Target parasites
Availability
References
Aloeexcelsa A. Berger.
Aloaceae
Stem, leaves
Crush leaves, mix with water for 24 h & spray
Fleas, ticks
Seasonal
[12]
Eucalyptus globules
Myrtaceace
Leaf
Aqueous Extract
external parasite
Always
[12]
Syzygiumunineense
Myrtaceae
Leaf
aqueous extract
sheep ked
Always
[12]
Croton acrotaschyus
Euphorbiaceae
Leaf
aqueous extract
External parasite
Always
[12,19]
BersamaabyssinicaFresen
Melianthacee
Leaves
Leaf aqueous extract
Sheep ked
[12]
VernoniaauriculiferaHiern.
Asteraceae
Leaves
Leaf aqueous extract
Sheep ked
Always
[12]
Capsicum annuum L.
Solanaceae
Fruits
Crush the fruits and mix with soot in water and spray
Ticks
Always
[36]
Nicotianatabacum L.
Solanaceae
Leave
Break and mix with water
Ticks
Always
[7]
Solanumincanum L.
Solanaceae
Fruits
Crush fruits and mix with water
Ticks
Seasonal
[36]
Guizotascabra
Asteraceae
Leave
powder paint
Ticks
Always
[25]
Azadirachtaindica A. Juss
Meliaceae
Leaf
powder on topical
Ticks
Always
[11,20]
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm)
Rutaceae
Fruit
Fruit paste is applied to the affected area
Sesonal
[7]
Aloe megalacantha
Aloaceae
Leaf
Latex
Ticks and lice
Always
Teklay Abera AB and Giday, 2007
MeliaazedarachL.
Meliaceae
Leaf and fruit
Aqueous and organic extract
Ticks and lice
Always
[5]
OtostegiaintegrifoliaBenth
Lamiaceae
Whole plants
Fumigate the plant in the house where the animals are kept
Ticks and lice
Always
[3,30]
Calpuriniaaurea (Ait)
Fabacee
Fresh leaves
Leaf aqueous extract
Lice and ticks
Always
Ketema et al., 2013
PremnaschimperiEngl
Lamiaceae
Root
root hot aqueous extract
Tick and mite infestations
Ketema, et al., 2013
Euphorbia obovalifolia
Euphorbiaceae
Leaves
Latex
Ticks
Always
Kabore et al., 2012; [15]
CucumisdipsaceusEhrenb
Cucurbitaceae
Root
Crushing root
Insecticide
[7]
Daturastramonium L.
Solanaceae
Leaves and fruit
Aqueous extract
Mange mites
[7]
Euphorbia abssinica
Euphorbiaceace
Leaves
Latex
Ectoparasite
[11]
Acacia melanoxylon R.Br
Fabacee
Leaves
Crushed leaf mixed with water
Mange mites
Kabore et al., 2012
Cucurbitapepo L
Cucurbitaceae
Seeds
Fruit cooked and rubbed
Ectoparasite
Ketema et al., 2013
Phytolaccadodecandra. L
Phytolacaceae
Leaves
Aqueous leaf exract
Ectoparasite
[47]
Calpurnia decandra
Fabacaea
Leaves
Aqueous leaf exract
Ectoparasite
[47]
Commiphoraerythraea (Ehrenb.) Engl.
Bruseraceae
Leaves
Latex
Ticks
[12]
Daturainnoxia Mill
Fabacaea
Leaves
Pounded leaves
Ectoparasite
[47]
Table 1: List of medicinal plants used for the treatment of ectoparasite.
Ethiopia
Investigator
Year of study
Region
Zone
District/study area
Regessa et al., 2000
2000
Tigray
-
-
Megrssa et al., 2013
2013
Oromia
East Wellega
Wayuwaku
Gebremariam et al., 2013
2013
Tigray
-
-
Damtew et al., 2014
2014
Addis Ababa
Shewa
Akaki
Teklay et al., 2013
2013
Tigray
-
Kilte, Awuaelo
Araya et al., 2015
2015
Tigray
-
Seharti, Samara
Ketemaet al., 2013
2013
SNNPR
South Omo
-
Mekuria et al., 2010
2010
SNNPR
Woliata Sodo
-
Assefa et al., 2017
2017
Oromia
Jimma
-
Seyoum and zerihun.,2014
2014
Addis Ababa
-
Debre Libanos
Gideyet al., 2007
2007
Amhara
Agewi-awi
-
Tekle,2014
2014
SNNPR
Gedeo
Kochore
Kebede,B, 2004
2004
Somalia
Liben
Moyale
Tesfaye et al., 2015
2015
Tigray
-
-
Gemdo et al., 2005
2005
Oromia
Borana
-
Yakob et al., 2008
2008
SNNPR
Woliata Sodo
-
Nibret et al., 2012
2012
Amhara
Lay- Arimacho
Kalayou et al., 2012
2012
Tigray
-
-
Mulugeta et al., 2010
2010
Tigray
-
-
Negessa et al., 2011
2011
Addis Ababa
-
-
Table 2: Lists of studies included in the systematic review from Ethiopia.
Methods
Search Strategies
Herbal ethno-veterinary ectoparasitic plants were used as the key words in searching different peer reviewed journals as literature search strategy.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were used.
• Ethno-botanical and ethno-medicinal surveys reporting on medicinal importance of ethno-veterinary herbal plant on ectoparasites.
• Written in English, conducted in Ethiopia, year of publication of study that describes method of preparation and route of administration.
• Articles focused on ectoparastic ethnoveterinary practice.
• The following research data were excluded from analysis.
• Data from ethno-botanical and ethno medicinal survey reporting on this selected medicinal plants lacking information about method of preparation and route of administration.
• Data from partially accessed articles (abstract only).
• Research conducted before 2000 G.C outside Ethiopia.
Data Collection
The data used in the systematic review were extracted for the actual studies: the first author, year of publication, year of study, study area, method of preparation, route of administration and veterinary ectoparasitic diseases treated by traditional medicinal plants.
Data Analysis
The collected data were entered in to excel spreadsheet and summarized using descriptive statistics. The spreadsheet data was employed to determine the frequency and the percentages so as to identify the ectoparasitic medicinal plant, geographical distribution of studies site, and method of remedy preparation, parts of plant used and route of administration in the study area.
Results
Literature Search Results
A total of 102 studies were identified, 22by BMC, 30 by PubMed, 40 by Google Scholar and 10 by Google Search. From these 20 were considered for systematic review.
Characteristics of the Studies
The studies included for this systematic review were conducted between 2000 and 2020 in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia this review performed in 5 regional and in 1 administration city: namely Oromia, South Nations Nationalities and Peoples of Region (SNNPR), Somalia, Tigray, Amhara, Addis Ababa. The detailed characteristics of the studies were presented below.
Geographical Distribution of Study Sites
(Table 3)
Study Area
Frequency
Percentage%
Tigray
7
35%
Oromia
3
15%
Addis Ababa
3
15%
SNNPR
4
20%
AMHARA
2
10%
Somalia
1
5%
Table 3: Geographical distribution of study site in Ethiopia.
From the total of 20 studies included in the systematic review from research conducted in Ethiopia, most studies were performed in Tigray, SNNPR, Oromia, Addis Ababa,Amhara, and the least research is conductedin Somalia region.
The distribution of study sites where ectoparasitic ethnoveterinary activity conducted on the use of different herbs ranged among states are; Tigray (35%), Oromia (15%), SNNPR (20%), Addis Ababa(15%), Amhara (10%) and Somalia (5%).
Data Analysis Results
The 20 selected study areas depict the use of veterinary ectoparasitic herbal medicine practice in Ethiopia was reviewed in details about method of preparation, plant parts used and mode of application. A total of 27 ethno-veterinary medicinal plant species belonging to various 13 families were documented with details on their importance, mode of application, plant parts used.
Parts of Plants Used For the Preparation of the Remedies
Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts and accounted for leaf (55.55%) of the total, fruit (11.11%), root (7.4%),both leaf and fruit (7.4%),whole parts (3.7%),steam and leaf (3.7%),seed (3.7%),fresh leaves (3.7%) and the latex covers (3.7%).
Method of Remedy Preparation: Various method of ectoparasitic veterinary medicinal plants preparation was documented. In this study decoction and crushing were found to be the major method of remedial preparation and both are accounted (25%), followed by juice (15%), infusion, chopping and squeezing each accounted (1%), powdering was the least method of remedial preparation and accounted for (5%).
Discussion
This study indicates that the systematic review of plant species is of importance for veterinary parasitology. This study shows that a large portion of the Ethiopian population depends on ethno medical practices and locally available ingredients, mainly medicinal plants used to cure and prevent health problems in livestock. A total of 20 research areas were reviewed and analyzed in detail in terms of regional and national distribution, preparation methods, routes of administration and plant parts used.
This systematic review reveals differences in the distribution of medicinal plants across regions and countries. The differences between the distributions of these exotic veterinary medicinal plants depend on soil fertility, suitable climatic conditions and good conservation strategies. Data analysis shows that the highest proportions of ethnographic economic practices are practiced in the Tigray region among the states of Ethiopia. Similar results were also reported by Suleman and Alemu (2012).
Figure 1: Results and the method of inclusion, exclusion criteria and the selection techniques.
Figure 2: The study sites in Ethiopia.
Figure 3: Parts of plant used for remedies preparation.
Figure 4: Method of preparation and their frequency.
Ethiopia is an area where ethnography is practiced mainly. This shows that local people are not only dependent on modern medicines, the existence of abundant medicinal plant species and high incidence of diseases. Analysis of the data from this study indicates that the parts of the plant most commonly used to make remedies and widely used by local healers are the leaves, followed by the fruit. Similar results were also reported by Lusebal and Tshisikhawe (2012) from South Africa, Stasi et al (2002) from Brazil who reported that leaves were the most dominant part of the plant in their study. However, unlike this study, Ribeiro et al (2012) from Mozambique found that plant roots were a major part of their study. In most studies, leaves were used more as plant parts than roots. The main reason many practitioners of traditional medicine use the leaf part for healing is its accessibility and the desire to prevent the extinction of the plant.
According to Abiyu et al (2014), leaves are a renewable part of a plant and using the plant for medicinal purposes is unlikely to affect plant survival and cause no serious stress problems. Other studies in Ethiopia have shown that leaves are the most preferred plant part for the treatment of livestock diseases due to the presence of pharmacologically active phytochemicals capable of activating biological activity [48].
Herbal medicines have different preparation methods for different diseases and they come in different dosage forms such as decoction, grinding, pressing, infusion, chopped, powdered and pressed. Crushing and decoction were the most frequently used preparation methods, followed by juice. Snowplowing is the least used drug preparation method in the study area. The use and management of medicinal plants varies depending on the type of disease [51]. A similar practice was carried out in the study of Hassan et al (2014), who stated that grinding is the most common method for preparing herbal remedies in Pakistan. However, unlike these studies, Mesfin et al. (2014) reported that powder was the most frequently used method in drug formulation. All these indicate that the methods of preparing traditional medicinal plants are not yet popular in the whole country.
Abrha et al. (2013) report that knowledge of medicinal plants is in the hands of a few healers and that knowledge of medicinal plants is declining or even unable to be transferred from the elderly to the next generation due to the loss of attention of the younger generation. Unless there is effective conservation and recording of these medicinal plants, there is a risk that their role will be lost over time.
Conclussion and Recommendation
The incidence of skin diseases in animals and the use of herbal medicines have been shown to be increasing worldwide, especially in developing countries. More than 80% of people living in developing countries depend on medicinal plants for their health and the health needs of their livestock. The medicinal plants reported in this study are parasitic plant agents that have been scientifically studied and used in traditional Ethiopian medicine. Therefore, current and future researchers in this field need to conduct studies on the safety and efficacy of other published traditional herbal medicines and generate the information needed to preserve Veterinarian guard.
• To save the next generation and solve the present problem, we must take care of the natural products available around us.
• Observations and findings provide enough evidence that older adults have a better knowledge of traditional herbal medicine than this generation. Therefore, the recording of these plants must be continued to preserve indigenous knowledge and pass it on to the next generation.
This study has not been completed; in further work, confirmation through in vitro and in vivo evaluation of their antiparasitic properties is needed to better inform traditional healers about their use.
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