Progress of Hollow Materials in Diagnosis of Covid-19

  

    
Nanoparticles    (NPs)
    
Characteristics 
    
Target viruses 
    
biosensor type 
    
Ref
  
  

    
Graphene    oxide (GO)
    
size    controllability of GO Nano sheets and changes in their oxidation level to    detect specific viruse.
    
HIV, RotavirusHIV-1, HBV
    
Potentiometric/    optical/ electrochemical
    
[71.72]
  
  

    
Carbon    nanotubes (CNTs)
    
It    possess high selectivity and sensitivity due to their high surface area
    
HPV,    HBV
    
electrochemical/    FET
    
[73,74]
  
  

    
zinc    oxide (ZnO)
    
Plays    a main role in special sensors known as mechano-chemicals
    
HIV
    
Electrochemical/    piezoelectric
    
[75]
  
  

    
quantum    dots (QDs)
    
It    have unique optical and electrical properties, having are powerful tools for providing rapid and    sensitive virus detection and treatment of viral disease.
    
EBV,    HIV, HBV, CoVs
    
optical/    electrochemical
    
[76]
  
  

    
copper    NPs
    
Due    to small size and high surface-to-volume ratio of copper NPs are easy to    enable for detection of viruses.
    
IAV,    HBV
    
electrochemical
    
[77,78]
  
  

    
silica    NPs
    
Silica    NP provided a platform important for bioanalytical studiessuch as    antigen-antibodies, peptides and DNA
    
HBV,    HPV
    
optical
    
[79,80]
  
  

    
Aluminum(AINPs)
    
AINPs    is the most prominent and attractive feature for designing biosensors due to    Nano porous morphology.
    
DENV,    Ebola
    
electrochemical
    
[81,82]
  
  

    
Magnetic    (MNPS)
    
MNPs    are widely used in reusable biosensor platforms
    
CoVs,    IAV, HBV
    
piezoelectric/    electrochemical
    
[83]
  
  

    
Gold(AuNPs)
    
AuNPs    have been used widely for very sensitive detection of viral diseases due to    theirunique optical and electrical properties
    
DENV,    RVFV, KSHV, CoVs
    
optical/    electrochemical
    
[84,85]
  
  

    
Silver    (AgNPs)
    
fluorescent    properties of AgNPs introduce high sensitivity to optical-based biosensors
    
KSHV,    CoVs, WNVinfluenza
    
optical/    electrochemica
    
[86]
  

Table 2: Summary of Representative Engineered Nanomaterials Employed As Biosensors for Virus Detection.

Biosensors

A biosensor is a system that generates a signal from a transducer for comparing and analyzing biological conjugates such as cell receptors, antibodies, RNA, DNA, and nucleic acids. The biosensor device was made up of four important components: a bioreceptor, a transducer, a biosensor, and a digitally controlled detector [87]. The second element is the transducer or detector; it operates by detecting the signal associated with a physicochemical shift induced by the interaction of the analyte and bioreceptor. It converts the signal to an evaluable and quantifiable form. A biosensor's final component is the reader system. It entails a display that is produced by software and hardware [88]. The development of a new class of diagnostic biosensors known as nanobiosensors was enabled by electrodes fabricated at the microscopic nanoscale and scale sensors. The biosensor characteristics were affected by continuous-material dimension reductions from large to small scales up to 100 nm [89]. However, it greatly expands the scope of their implications.

Because of the interaction of the sensor surface with the analyte, biosensors with a high surface-to-volume ratio are very effective in nanosized devices. With the help of natural elements, hollownanomaterial transducers have been improved to develop commonly used biosensors for disease diagnostics and biomolecule detection.

Such instruments can assess a patient's physiological status quickly and accurately. Conduct pesticide and water contamination analyses on food and environmental samples [90]. Patients' physiological status can be quickly assessed with such instruments. The interaction of analytes with surface sensors will become very effective due to the large surface volume ratio of nanosized devices [91]. Biosensors can be used to detect bacteria and viruses in food and water, which are potential disease sources. Depending on the type of biosensor, biologically sensitive components recognize and interact with the analyte [92]. Zhao et al. designed and built a compact microfluidic device at a cheaper rate. For in situ fast diagnosis of E. coli, a biosensor is developed with the support of a graphene monolayervia streptavid in antibody and AuNPs. The surface of the biosensor is used to collect the bacteria, and identification is carried out electronically [93]. These devices incorporate bioreceptor sensing elements that mimic in vivo molecular recognition phenomena [94].

The combination of biosensor characteristics and nanotechnologies is now seen as a candidate that could be considered to accelerate the production of rapid, susceptible and precise devices for real bacterial and viral detection. Nanobiosensors, therefore, use magnetic, optical, electrical, and chemical characteristics of pathogens and biomolecules to detect the materials [96,97]. Research into hollow nanomaterials and nanostructures (e.g., nanogels, polymer nanocomposites, plasmonic nanomaterials, metal nanoclusters, metal oxide NPs, and carbon nanotubes) has made a significant contribution to the production of biosensors [98,99]. They have been used to adjust electrode surfaces and increase critical characteristics, including sensitivity, selectivity, and reproductiveness, due to their high adsorption capability, compatibility of structures, and biocompatibility.

Nanomaterials are candidates that are important for the use of biosensing. Nanotechnological advances have encouraged the production of medical diagnostic tests and quicker, cheaper, more sensitive, and more precise devices. Hollow nanomaterial biosensors put together diverse fields, such as chemistry, molecular biology, material science, and biotechnology. They give extreme sensitivity so that some biosensors can now detect as low as a parasite per microliter of blood [100].

Electrochemical Biosensor

Electrochemical studies provide essential benefits, such as design simplicity, higher selectivity and sensitivity, lower power demand, low-price equipment, and ready incorporation into instruments for microfluidics compared to techniques used in the past. Interestingly, the investigation of electrochemical gadgets has exhibited excellent performance in medical apparatuses [101]. In the last few decades, the world has been facing serious virus outbreak diseases such as SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, and Ebola. It will be demanding a fast test kit to help and prevent more pandemics within the congested population. From a care diagnostic perspective, a new platform with specialized instruments for cases such as COVID-19 is a future obstacle [102].

Working electrodes can be made from semi conductive ingredients ranging from metals to nonmetals, such as materials and carbon of different sizes, ranging from main part materials to hollow nanostructures. Materials, fabrication methods, and design methods are all factors to consider, and the selectivity of the electrode and detection limit output are influenced by the electrode's characteristics and structures. As biosensors, a variety of gold- and platinumbased electrodes are used [103-105]. Cutting or conventional micromanufacturing techniques were used to create a large metal area or thin-film metal electrode using screen printing techniques and physical vapor deposition [106,107]. Polymer electrodes (which offer longevity, biocompatibility, and adjustable electric conductivity) and ceramic electrodes (made of indium tin oxide, polysilicon, and titanium dioxide) have also been utilized to produce electrodes [108]. However, selecting materials for electrochemical sensors, especially those used to detect pathogens, requires expert knowledge. Critical aspects of electrochemical sensors, including coupling chemistry, double-layer capacitance and heterogeneous electron transfer rate bioreceptors, may be normed, and they require immobilization. Hollow nanoparticle expendability and malleability have attracted interest in biological sectors, with several reaching commercialization, particularly for viral detection [109].

These discoveries have opened up incredible prospects for nanotechnology to detect and diagnose viral infections. As these materials exhibit a definite characteristic that compared to their bulk counterparts and have dramatically increased the ratio of surface-volume nanomaterials, to create robust materials for COVID detection [110], these materials have dramatically increased the aforementioned properties to create robust materials for COVID detection. Signals have been magnified from two aptamers. Zhao et al. produced a reliable electrochemical technique for detecting Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) based on nanoparticles of Cu₃ (PO₄)²-AuNP [111]. The constructed sensor had excellent binding sites, a flexible shape, and biocompatibility. Lee et al. devised a label-free avian influenza viral detection approach using electrochemistry and a multifunctional DNA structure on a porous (p) AuNP-modified electrode [112-114].

DNA sequence that has been proposed as a three-way intersection/p AuNP-based detection method can be used for the detection of a number of targets as a useful biosensor for the detection of pathogen subtypes on a single platform or single target detection with a high degree of reliability using the dual detection method [115]. The existing diagnostic procedures for SARS-CoV-2 are both timeconsuming and expensive. However, some excellent and low-cost techniques are available for immediate use, such as the synthesis of a low-cost but sensitive electrochemical sensor such as Co-TNTs for rapid SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis via spike detection (Receptor-Binding Domain, RBD) available on the virus's surface [44].

A potentiost at was used to cobalt-functionalize the TNT platform connected for data collection, after which a cheaper, onestep electrochemical technique was used to prepare TNTs. This sensor can detect the S-RBD protein of SARS-CoV-2 even at low concentrations (14–1400 nM). Furthermore, this sensor exhibits a linear relationship with viral protein diagnosis over a broad concentration range. In approximately 30 seconds, the Co-TNT sensor can sense SARS-CoV-2 S-RBD protein in nasal secretions and saliva samples, which might be exploited to establish quick point-ofcare diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 detection in nasal secretions and saliva samples [44]. Because of their great sensitivity, precision, and accuracy in identifying biomarkers, electrochemical biosensors are crucial for detecting biomolecules [116]. Electrochemical biosensors have been used to successfully detect viruses such as MERS-CoV. Lahyquah et al. discovered MERS-CoV using a carbon electrode array to enhance its capability with gold nanoparticles. A biosensor for detecting SARS-CoV-2 has been described [117], which uses AuNP-decorated Fluorine Tin Oxide (FTO) glass impregnated with nCovid-19 monoclonal antibody.

By integrating hollow nanomaterials with the electrode, the efficiency of electrochemical biosensors can be improved. As the electrode surface area-volume ratio grows, the electrochemical reaction rate improves, resulting in a larger electrode surface area to analyte fluid volume. Tuberculosis biomarkers have also been detected using Ni-TNTs with a greater surface-volume ratio [118,119].

The suggested sensing method is based on the creation of a complex between the biomarker and Co due to Co ion reduction and biomarker oxidation at a certain bias voltage. As biosensors, several metal-based electrodes consisting of platinum and gold are utilized [103,104,120]. Cutting or traditional microfabrication techniques such as physical vapor deposition and screen printing, for example, were used to fabricate a thin film electrode or a thick surface based on metal. Additionally, polymer electrodes and ceramic electrodes composed of indium tin oxide, polysilicon, and titanium dioxide have the advantages of durability and flexibility. The fabrication of electrodes has been based on biocompatibility and tunable electric conductivity [108,121]. However, selecting materials for electrochemical sensors, especially those used to detect pathogens, requires expert knowledge.

The most frequent carbon materials used in conventional carbon sensors are glassy carbon, carbon fibers, and pyrolytic graphite, with pyrolytic graphite, carbon fibers, and glassy carbon being the most common carbon materials used in traditional carbon sensors [122,123]. The majority of carbon-based hollow nanomaterials exhibit several advantageous properties, including increased electrocatalytic activity, adsorption biocompatibility, and a high electron transfer rate [124].

Sensor applications have been investigated using carbon nanotubes and graphene. Simple drop casting, substrate growth, code position with metal nanoparticles, and field-effect transistors can all be used to directly integrate these into biological sensors [125]. Using the electrochemical impedimetric technique, researchers recently suggested the aid of gold hollow nanotubes for label-free detection of Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) [126]. An external electric field was used to force the negatively charged DNA oligonucleotide into the desired orientation in this study. By regulating immobilization and hybridization of the sequence onto gold nanotube surfaces, the sensing responsiveness may be improved. Silver nanoparticles (Ag- NP) are simple to make and have strong biomolecular attraction. As a result, they are perfect for making electrochemical biosensors [127]. Further investigation allowed researchers to explore an electrochemical immunoassay to detect antibodies against Tick- Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV) [128].

Before covalently immobilizing the antigen onto the electrode surface, the gold and carbon composite electrode was thiolated and gluttonized. Because of graphene's excellent chemical, mechanical, thermal, and electrical capabilities, hollow nanostructures are useful. They are the most often employed biosensors for DNA detection, because they have higher affinity for single-stranded DNA due to p-p stacking and hydrophobic interactions [129]. To improve biocompatibility, selectivity and solubility, graphene can be employed to interact with a variety of biomolecules and tissues. Wang et al. devised a sandwich-type electrochemical immunoassay by using apoferritin-embedded Cu nanoparticles with graphene QDs [23]. To determine the amount of Cu emitted from the apoferritin cavity assembly, differential plus voltammetry was used. Due to vast surface area of graphene quantum points, the electric signals increased, effectively accommodating considerable antibody loading [130]. Cu-apoferritin nanoparticles here have improved the charge of an electro active sample to further enhance the signals. The approach could identify avian leuck with a detection limit of 115 TCID50/mL and the range of 102.08 to 104.50 TCID50/mL.

The electrode material used in electrochemical sensors is important because it may alter the sensor output in a variety of ways. The capacitance of the double layer (which affects S/N), the heterogeneous electron transfer rate (which affects sensitivity and reaction time), the presence of the coordination chemistry used to immobilize the receptors, and the proclivity of electrochemicalluminescent sensors for nonspecific binding and quenching are all factors to consider. Carbon is a popular electrode material that is used as a platform for sensor growth Fluorine-Doped Tin Oxide (FDTO) and silicon (oxide) [131-133].

Because the faradic electrode is now dependent on the active site of the electrode until the background current grows in proportion, increasing the active electrode region will improve the detection sensitivity. To increase the area, hollow nanomaterials form other receptors that can be immobilized to give a more possibly increasing sensitivity and dynamic range, e.g., nucleic acid capture rings or antibodies [134]. Serious respiratory diseases in humans, including MERS and SARS, that cause contemporary problems were detected by viruses. In particular, however, the COVID-19 virus SARS-CoV-2 [135]. To identify the coronavirus type virus MERS-CoV, an immune sensor using voltammetry detection was established.

An electrochemical sensor was developed using folding paper techniques by Crooks and coworkers [136] that detects a 30-base nucleotide associated with HBV DNA and has a limit of detection of 85 pM. Micrometer-scale particles are accommodated in a hollow tube, and an extremely advanced slip sheet enables the separate incubation phases to be conveniently staged in time [137]. By using silver nanoparticle labels, an overall amplification factor of 250,000 was achieved using two stages of amplification. Simultaneously, magnetic microbeads equipped with detention investigations can be pre concentrated at a detection electrode to approximately 25-fold amplify the signal [138]. Notably, the assay is carried out without the use of enzymes or antibodies, which increases its stability, speed, toughness, shelf life and temperature tolerance. Only one incubation step is required prior to detection.

Biosensors based on Field Effect Transistors (FETs) have several advantages and characteristics when used with various analyte concentrations. Biosensors based on FETs have a wide range of applications, most notably in medical treatment, monitoring, and diagnosis at the point of care [139-141]. Graphene is a new nanomaterial made up of 2-D carbon atom layers. This material is an ideal candidate for active sensing surfaces because of its high carrier mobility, superior electrical conductivity, wide surface area and ease of surface functionalization [142]. As a result, graphene base materials are regarded as the best material for improving the sensitivity of FET biosensors and are a prerequisite for preventing an influenza pandemic. A field-effect transistor based on a graphene (G-FET) configuration was used to detect biological substances. The high sensitivity and stability of biological objectives, including the bio-FET process and the virus gene of H5N1 influenza, allowed for rapid detection, which is used for a flow-through strategy and provides an admirable platform for label-free detection. Chan et al. improved its efficiency by employing reduced graphene oxide films on Si/SiO2 substrates. However, the Limit Of Detection (LOD) of influenza viruses was in the picomolar range, requiring the usage of a single-layer hexagonal carbon network [143,144]. Using a film of graphene-based material, Seo et al. produced an FET detector for the COVID-19 active virus that has antibodies functional with SARSCoV- 2 spike antibody (Figure 4) [47].

Figure 4: SARS-CoV-2 (spheres) attaches to antibodies (Y-shapes) in this schematic representation of the graphene-based field-effect transistor (FET) biosensor mechanism and detection (a). COVID-19 FET reaction to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in real time (b). MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are two distinct proteins that bionanosensors respond to differently (c). Reprinted with permission from ref [145]. Copyright 2020 the American Chemical Society.

    

    

    Figure 4: SARS-CoV-2 (spheres) attaches to antibodies (Y-shapes) in this schematic representation of the graphene-based field-effect transistor (FET) biosensor
mechanism and detection (a). COVID-19 FET reaction to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in real time (b). MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are two distinct proteins that
bionanosensors respond to differently (c). Reprinted with permission from ref [145]. Copyright 2020 the American Chemical Society.
    

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As a bioreceptor, the spike antibody SARS-CoV-2 was used. Moreover, it is an immunogenic transmembrane protein that selectively recognizes SARS-CoV-2. By incorporating a graphenebased FET biosensor into this biosensor, electrical characterization revealed an actual response to COVID-19 detection. S-protein, 1 fg/mL SARS-CoV-2 has good real-time detection. 4C Additionally, Figure 4 shows the biosensor's selectivity and sensitivity in distinguishing SARS-CoV-2 from other antigen proteins, such as MERS-CoV, and the ability of the surface to bind directly to the SARS-CoV-2 antigen of choice. The accuracy with which this biosensor identified the virus is impressive, and it could be used or updated to screen for other diseases in the future. A biosensor based on FET for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical samples [146]. Cultured virus, antigen protein, and COVID-19 patient nasopharyngeal swab specimens were used to calculate the sensor output. The S-protein SARS-CoV-2 may be detected at 1fg/mL in phosphate-buffered saline and 100 fg/ mL in clinical transported medium by using the FET device. The yield-effect transistor sensor successfully identified SARS-CoV-2 in culture media (LOD 1.6 101 pfu/mL [145].

Biosensing system-based FETs have several advantages over other currently available diagnostic techniques. This includes the capability to perform instantaneous and sensitive analyses with trace quantities of analytes [147,148]. Electrochemical biosensors are excellent for biomolecule sensing and can detect biomarkers with specificity high and sensitivity accuracy. Viruses have been successfully identified using electrochemical biosensors (such as MERS-CoV) [149]. Recently, gold nanoparticle-coated immobilized FTO glass was used to detect SARS-CoV-2 with a nCovid-19 monoclonal antibody [117]. The electrochemical biosensor functionality can be developed even further by hollow nanostructuring of the electrode, which increases the electrode surface area-volume ratio, resulting in a higher electrode surface area to analyte fluid volume ratio. Personalized medicine and digital health tracking have grown in popularity in recent years, and this great potential is now a reality thanks to considerable developments in skin-interfaced wearable sensors [150]. These sensors interact with the skin on multiple scales, from cellular to molecular, and can perform therapeutic and diagnostic activities with pinpoint accuracy, consistency, and speed. Electrochemical detection is potentially the most suitable technique for such sensor devices due to its low electric power consumption and ease of miniaturization [151].

Dual Modality Biosensors

Magnetic hollow nanoparticles with numerous uses are a new type of material with much potential in terms of increased functionality. It is difficult to create new nanocomposites without compromising magnetic activity or adding useful characteristics. An optically active Quantum Dot (QD) (core) enclosed within iron oxide (hollow shell) is the first electrochemical/fluorescence dual-modality probe in this study [152]. The encapsulation of QDs on the hollow shell structure preserves fluorescence with negligible quenching effects and good magnetic characteristics, paving the way for future fluorescence modality readout applications. Various viruses (such as Hepatitis E Virus-Like Particles (HEV-LPs) and Norovirus (Nov), were detected using a dual-modality sensor with Quantum dot -encapsulated magnetic hollow sphere nanoparticles (QD@MHS NPS) with highly integrated multimodal sensing and magnetic separation capability. In addition, the sensitivity of feces from HEV-infected monkeys was comparable to that of a gold-standard real-time quantitative Reverse Transcription–Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT–qPCR). This welldefined QD@MHS NP-based nanoplatform intelligently integrates dual-modality sensing and magnetic bioseparation, paving the door for efficient virus diagnostic point-of-care testing [152].

Each method of sensing has its own set of drawbacks; combining them into multimodal sensing can provide additional data [153- 155]. Fabricating hollow nanomaterials with multiple functional constituents that act as bifunctional markers is fascinating. Hybrid nanomaterials with a variety of synergistic properties can be created by combining magnetic nanoparticles with other active components. High-fluorescence inorganic fluorescent QDs are an appealing component widely used in high-throughput detection [156]. Coen capsulation in inorganic materials such as silica, template-based syntheses utilizing physical appendage or chemical bonding, or attachment of individual nanoparticles is the most common way to make magneto-fluorescent materials. Magnetic nanoparticles (core) and fluorescent QDs (shell) were assembled in the presence of a thin layer of silica to create colloidal structures. These nanoassemblies are rich in fluorophores and have a high magnetic content [157].

Rather than developing traditional single-mode sensors, the researchers in this study used CdSeTeS-QD@Fe₂O₃ hollow sphere nanoparticles (QD@MHS NPs) to create a dual-mode biosensor. Although hollow nanoparticles with magnetic and fluorescence properties have been used in a variety of bioimaging and drug delivery applications, more research is needed [158-159]. To our knowledge, their use in virus detection has yet to be demonstrated. With the recent increase in demand for virus sensing, a viable embodiment of sensitive and accurate strategies, particularly for the early stages of infection, is required, capable of rapidly providing a reliable and precise signal. The authors described how they used the synthesized QD@MHS NPs to develop a dual-modality biosensor for virus detection that incorporated electrochemical and fluorescence modalities to minimize false movement and self-verification. Although the target virus is present in basic sample analysis, several interferences indicate that magnetic bioseparation is required [152- 160]. The most widely used method, fluorescence, is used to obtain rapid sensing signals, and QD@MHS NPs have both magnetic and fluorescence properties. These structures provide a novel platform for separating targets from a complex biological matrix while also amplifying significant and reliable signals for clinical diagnosis [161]. Anti-monoclonal antibodies against HEV (anti-HEV-IgG) and NoV (anti-NoV-IgG) were conjugated to the surface of QD@MHS NPs, conferring HEV and NoV specificity, respectively.

Antibody-functionalized QD@MHS NPs, as shown in Figure 5 (A), can be used to capture the target virus from complex virus samples, forming virus/QD@MHS complexes as a result of the specific antigen-antibody reaction. Without sample pretreatment by applied virus/QD@MHS complexes, excess QD@MHS NPs, or an external magnetic field, the magnetic response of QD@MHS NPs was quickly separated and enriched. Virus/QD@MHS complexes and free QD@MHS NPs were redispersed in the new buffer after magnetic separation, and the vial was filled with antibody-labeled reduced graphene oxide-modified gold electrodes. The virus/QD@ MHS complexes bind to antibodies on the electrode surface, forming sandwich structures that are used to read electrochemical modality signals using an impedimetric response. The supernatant was used to read the fluorescence modality signal using the back-calculation method [162]. The structural merits of the QD@MHS NPs allowed for high fluorescence efficiency, and optimizing situations for their sensing parameters and sensor formulation were thoroughly investigated. The immunological interactions between the target virus and antibody molecules on the surface of QD@MHS NPs are the basis for this dual-modality sensor. An electrochemical signal is generated when antibody-conjugated QD@MHS NPs capture the virus and then bind it to an antibody-conjugated electrode. The change in the fluorescence signal was measured using unbound QD@MHS NPs with a diameter of 20 nm. Both the electrochemical impedance and fluorescence signal from the same sensing sample will provide two distinct signals due to the specific antigen-antibody reactions that occur as the virus concentration changes. The unique structure of QD@MHS NPs allows sensitive and precise biomolecule detection, which has important implications in disease diagnosis [152]. with electrochemical impedance and fluorescence as dual modalities (c). RE, WE, and CE denote reference, working, and counter electrodes, respectively. Reprinted with permission from ref [152]. Copyright. 2020 Elsevier B.V.

Figure 5: The fabrication process for QDs encapsulated within a hollow iron oxide sphere (QD@Fe2O3) is depicted schematically (a). An rGO-coated Au electrode with antibody conjugation (b) and antigen-antibody reaction and magnetic separation are used to detect the target virus, with electrochemical impedance and fluorescence as dual modalities (c). RE, WE, and CE denote reference, working, and counter electrodes, respectively. Reprinted with permission from ref [152]. Copyright. 2020 Elsevier B.V.

    

    

    Figure 5: The fabrication process for QDs encapsulated within a hollow iron oxide sphere (QD@Fe2O3) is depicted schematically (a). An rGO-coated Au electrode
with antibody conjugation (b) and antigen-antibody reaction and magnetic separation are used to detect the target virus, with electrochemical impedance and
fluorescence as dual modalities (c). RE, WE, and CE denote reference, working, and counter electrodes, respectively. Reprinted with permission from ref [152].
Copyright. 2020 Elsevier B.V.
    

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The interaction of the target virus with the Au rGO/antibody and QD@MHS NPs is governed by antibody conjugation. For the proof of concept, an anti-HEV antibody is conjugated to QD@MHS NPs, and an Au rGO electrode selectivity experiment is carried out in the presence of serum medium containing 10% diluted human serum with influenza virus, NoV, White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), and Zika virus as other samples to confirm the specificity of the proposed sensor [163]. The signal attributed to the magnetic separation of the virus complex was not significantly changed by the sensors in buffer or 100% serum (as a negative control), effectively separating the interferences. Only the HEV-LP sample shows an increase in impedance, while the rest of the samples show no change [164].

All negative pieces have a slight increase in impedance from 0.5 to 5%, indicating the advanced dual-modality sensor's superior specificity. The fluorescence modality is also used to determine the selectivity of the developed HEV-LP sensor [165]. As a result, the number of nanoparticles does not change after separation, resulting in a minor difference in fluorescence. These findings suggest that the dual-modality sensor that was developed is well suited to detecting HEV-LP. A dual-modality sensor based on QD@MHS NPs has the following advantages over a traditional single-modality assay. This dual-mode sensor combines electrochemical impedance and fluorescence sensing into a single sensing system, allowing for more sensitive and accurate linear range sensing [166]. QD@MHS NPs are bioseparation probes made up of an optically active semiconductor QD core with enhanced fluorescence encapsulated within a hollow iron oxide sphere. The unique morphology of QD@MHS NPs prevents unwanted interactions within the nanoparticles, which could affect the fluorescence and magnetic properties. The magnetic property helps to separate the virus from the robust sample matrix, resulting in minimal background noise and possibly aiding in antiinterference solid ability and accuracy [152].

Furthermore, the sample volume required to integrated with dual-modality sensor is smaller than that required in two spatially separated electrochemical and fluorescence detectors [167]. Finally, the developed dual-modality sensor eliminates the need for timeconsuming sample preparation as well as sophisticated analytical equipment. Presenting a unique platform for significant applications in disease diagnostics. The current integrated dual-modality sensor recognizes and quantifies viruses using both electrochemical and fluorescence detection methods on a single nanocomplex. Because the sensor can generate two readouts for a specific antigen-antibody reaction at the QD@MHS NP surface, the integrated dual-modality design has the potential to improve detection reliability [168].

Optical Biosensors

One of the most promising biosensors for virus detection now available on the market is optical biosensors, which use Lab-On-a- Chip (LOC) techniques to increase nucleic acids for fluorescence examination [169]. Optical imaging, particularly single viral imaging, has the potential to be utilized to monitor and track virus reproduction, cell termination and contact, allowing for the development of faster and more systematic treatment alternatives. These imaging approaches are already being used in COVID-19 detection research [47,170]. However, more work is needed to transfer these innovations from the lab to the market. The plasmon principle is used in optical biosensors such as LSPR and SPR [171]. With plasmon detection, advanced surface chemistry approaches for viral strain detection provide a high degree of accuracy and a short reaction time. Researchers have devised a unique study strategy employing a biosensor that combines two distinct effects, visual and thermal, to create an optical sensor LSPR for the stability of viral RNA samples [172]. To artificially construct DNA receptor sequences, biosensors that complement RNA genome portions of the SARS-CoV-2 virus utilizing gold nanoparticles on a glass substratum are employed. After these precise orders were attached onto gold nanoislands, SARS-CoV-2 was successfully identified. Further refinement is required prior to application [170]. The creation of an optical fiber sensor based on Evanescent Wave Absorbance (EWA) for the quick and precise detection of COVID-19 was proven in a point-of-care situation. As a consequence of this study, two suggestions were made. The first proposal is to measure the host immune response, and the second is to identify viral cell surface proteins using suitable receptors. However, the host immune response was not a perfect prediction of the current COVID-19 virus, and other respiratory infections, such as SARS-CoV and MERS, can elicit comparable responses [173]. Using Localized Surface Plasmon Coupled Fluorescence (LSPCF), the studied an optical biosensor for SARS-CoV detection. The detection limit was 104-fold for 3 hours at a low concentration of COVID-19 (N) protein in blood (1 pg/mL). On the other hand, the purification and isolation process required time for sample preparation [174]. Using a SARS-CoV detection quantum dot-conjugated biosensor test chip, the diagnostic time was one hour after sample separation and washing. Researchers have created a sensitive molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) biosensor. These biosensors are inexpensive and simple to use. A fluorescent immunosensor-based biosensor with a sensitivity of 4.6/102 per mL was used as a coronavirus detector for Fluorescence Energy Resonance Transfer (FRET) [175].

Plasmonic effects have long been employed in biosensing, and a range of detection techniques have been developed, such as SPR and localized SPR have all been employed in biosensing for extensive time [176]. This was demonstrated in Lung Function Data (LFD) experiments that used laser excitation to increase the colorimetric signal of gold nanoparticles. Another advantage is that laser-reader systems may operate in normal LFD architecture and modes [176]. It is worth mentioning that LSPR can help researchers better grasp SARS-CoV-2 infection processes. For example, protein interactions with human receptors are known to be critical for viral survival in human cells. Experimental proof of docking-related phenomena can be obtained using SPR [177,178]. Another benefit of LSPR biosensors is their inexpensive development costs — a home-built LSPR system based on white-light extinction, for example, would cost $25000 to construct. This is a less expensive alternative to more complex Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) technology. The thermoplastic effect is created by absorbed light's non radiative relaxation in hollow nanomaterials, which creates more than localized heat energy that may be exploited as a source of localized heating for controlled thermal operations [179]. In dual-function biosensors, a similar technology was utilized to detect SARS-CoV-2 [170]. To make synthetic viral oligonucleotide sequences, a similar technique has already been employed by the Corman et al research group [180]. A synthetic receptor oligonucleotide such as RdRp SARS-CoV-2-C was used to incorporate the AuNI (Au nanoisland) sensing device into an LSPR detection system. When RdRp SARS-CoV-2 genes were introduced into the sensing chamber, hybridization became eight times faster because of the thermoplastic effect. (Figure 6) illustrates the results of applying LSPR responses to evaluate this dual-plasmonic device for viral nucleic acid detection. Before the LSPR biosensor can be utilized on COVID-19, a number of challenges must be solved, including the difficulties of producing strong and reproducible substrates.

Figure 6: LSPR response versus RdRp conc. of SARS-CoV-2 (a); zoom of the low-conc. region of LSPR biosensor responses for different RdRp oligos conc. (b); LSPR biosensor response for detection of other viruses, such as ORF1ab and E protein from SARS-CoV-2 and RdRp from SARS-CoV (c); the comparison of LSPR biosensor response in single-analyte (d). Reprinted with permission from ref [181]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

    

    

    Figure 6: LSPR response versus RdRp conc. of SARS-CoV-2 (a); zoom of the low-conc. region of LSPR biosensor responses for different RdRp oligos conc. (b);
LSPR biosensor response for detection of other viruses, such as ORF1ab and E protein from SARS-CoV-2 and RdRp from SARS-CoV (c); the comparison of LSPR
biosensor response in single-analyte (d). Reprinted with permission from ref [181]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.
    

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Researchers have successfully developed an optical sensor for identifying the COVID-19 virus [182]. It is advantageous to determine the virus's existence in the surrounding environment. Optical sensors might be a viable option for measuring virus quantities in the air heavily inhabited and congested locations. Wang et al. investigated and decreased artificially produced airborne contaminants such as aerosols and nanoparticles. To increase detection safety, reliability, and sensitivity, researchers created an optical nanosensor based on LSPR technology [183]. An LSPR biosensor was created by surface functionalizing a succinimidyl ester group and attaching it 2-D Au nanoislands with an usual size of 40.2 nm on a glass substrate [184,185].

The visual and luminescent features of hollow nanoparticles, as well as the impacts of Surface Plasmons (SPs) and Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (LRET) are all factors in his optical nanobiosensor design principles (Figure 7). Biosensors can benefit from hollow nanoparticles' intrinsic luminescence or plasmonic optical absorption capabilities [162]. The acceptor's fluorescence signal would be recovered when employing LRET-based biosensors to target the analyte. The donor luminescence intensity decreases while the receptor luminescence intensity increases as energy is transmitted between the donor and acceptor via resonance interactions (Figure 7A and 2B). As a consequence of the energy transfer, the donor's life expectancy is lowered. Palladium, platinum and silver nanoparticles have been employed widely in the creation of sensing probes [186,187]. Noble metal nanostructures display extraordinary optical features via LSPR that have conduction band electrons due to their unique interaction with light [188].

Figure 7: AuNI surface functionalization is used to detect bioaerosols (a). The in situ surface functionalization phase utilizes 11-mercaptoundecanoic (11-MUA) and EDC/NHS activators (b). Reprinted with permission from ref [185]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

    

    

    Figure 7: AuNI surface functionalization is used to detect bioaerosols (a). The in situ surface functionalization phase utilizes 11-mercaptoundecanoic (11-MUA)
and EDC/NHS activators (b). Reprinted with permission from ref [185]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.
    

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Through strong detectable light scattering, it also directs radiative or nonradiative attenuation. Photon energy is converted into thermal energy as a result of this. Both attenuation mechanisms have benefited diagnostics, bio imaging, and therapeutics. The LSPR approach was recently employed to identify SARS-CoV-2 (severe coronavirusrelated acute respiratory illness) [170,189].

Colloidal Gold Immunochromatographic Assay (GICA) is not suitable for early disease detection because the human antibody reacts to novel coronaviruses; in the case of influenza, the response time is relatively slow (approximately seven days after infection). Xia et al. created an application using smart phones to detect avian influenza virus on a point-of-care platform [190]. Following the capture of the antibody conjugation virus, a colorimetric reaction based on Au/AgNPs with a detection limit of 2.73% embryo infectious dose EDI50/mL can be used to detect the virus with the naked eye. This is a tenfold improvement over traditional fluorescent Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay (ELISA)-based detection. The smart phone imaging system's data-processing capabilities enhance the detection limit even further, decreasing it to 83103 EID50/mL [190]. Moitra et al. were able to visually detect nucleic acids in less than 10 minutes [39], and the N-gene (nucleocapsid phosphoprotein) of extracted RNA samples was detected using a colorimetric assay based on SARS-CoV-2 antisense (ASO)-modified AuNPs. In their method, four ASO sequences were chosen for their energy binding with the N-target in the presence of SARS-CoV-2 N-gene sequences and ASO arrangements were employed to cap AuNPs, resulting in complementary binding [191]. Color changes in the solution may be noticed with the naked eye [39]. Another researcher presented a paper-based biosensor that combines extraction of nucleic acids with amplification and optical detection to detect dengue virus. The biotinylated target DNA in the test would attach to the AuNP sensing samples and interact with streptavidin in the test zone, resulting in a visible red signal. By integrating agarose into the test strip, they were able to manage the flow of biomolecules for optimum interactions. When related to the complete test strip, the target identification sensitivity was considerably improved. However, using naked readings has drawbacks such as poor quantification and low analytical sensitivity [192].

Qiu et al. demonstrated a dual-functional Au nanoisland-based biosensor via thermoplastic heating. SPR imaging was utilized to identify RNA polymerase that is reliant on RNA (RdRp) (to produce signal amplification), and SARSCoV2 has a nearly comparable nucleic acid sequence with a detection limit of 0.22 pM [170]. A total of 2.26107 copies of the RdRp COVID series were identified in a 200 L analyte solution, which is greater than the SARS-CoV-2 viral load at onset (1106 copies/mL), considered fluorescent labeling to quickly and reliably identify the presence of SARS-CoV-2 [193]. Colorimetric indicators change color when enough viral DNA units are present. To identify anti-SARS-CoV-2 Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies in human serum (LIFA), Chen et al. devised a lateral flow immunoassay [194]. On lanthanide-doped polystyrene nanoparticles, a goat antirabbit IgG control line and recombinant SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid phosphoprotein were functionally coated (LNPs). The test line was conjugated with MHIgG@LNPs and coupled with human anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in the flow experiment, resulting in a fluorescent signal change on the test line.

In the same way, rIgG@LNPs was combined with the control line material. To measure the anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG concentration in human blood sample, a test line ratio is computed in the control fluorescence signal. In unprocessed blood samples, Li et al. devised a technique for identifying immunoglobulin M (IgM), the initial line of viral infection protection, and immunoglobulin G (IgG), longterm immunity antibodies, in less than 15 min [195]. The biophysical capacity of the SARS-CoV-2 virus to identify and attach to high-affinity Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) is particularly intriguing [196,197]. SARS-CoV-2 spike anticorpus AuNPs, which have shown potential as a SARS-CoV-2 field-effect transistor detection technique, can be used to make LFIAs [198]. Antibody binding to SARS–CoV-2 has been discovered in recent investigations by Wu et al. and Chen et al. This study will contribute to the creation of optical biomarkers that can be connected to SARS-CoV-2 antibodies with success. The S-proteinin SARS-CoV-2 that interacts with the ACE2 receptor in host cells has been the subject of recent therapeutic investigations. The purpose of this research was to design and synthesize SARSCoV- 2-binding aptamers. If optical biomass sensors based on SARSCoV- 2 receptors were created and produced, COVID-19 might be evaluated more successfully [199].

Conclusion and Future Prospects

Despite the constraints caused by the absence of standardized assessment techniques, the purpose of this study is to offer complete overview of contemporary antiviral materials. In previous review publications on COVID-19 prevention, were discussed but we focused on medicines and techniques that inactivate SARS-CoV-2. Because of their capacity to infiltrate cells fast and interact with viruses to limit viral genome replication, hollow nanomaterials, particularly CoVs, can be regarded as good options against viral infection. It is vital to have a comprehensive and long-term plan for fighting infections, particularly respiratory viruses. The biological system forges a close relationship with nanoscience by merging hollow nanomaterials with nanomedicine to detect and cure disorders. Hollow nanoparticles are not only effective for viral diagnostics but also considered a therapeutic potential tool. It has the potential to reverse antiviral resistance, which poses a significant danger to currently available conventional therapies. Furthermore, by combining cutting-edge nanotechnology with standard antiviral medications, it is feasible to greatly boost the bioavailability of hollow nanoparticles while lowering their toxicity. Researchers have confronted various pandemics and viral outbreaks in the past, including the swine flu pandemic and Ebola virus Zika epidemics, which have impacted considerably more people. Researchers are currently focusing their efforts on high-level experimental investigations to produce unique and intelligent nano/ biomaterials and matrices for the creation of controlled release and targeted drug delivery systems. Currently, scientists are focusing their efforts on advanced experimental investigations to produce unique and intelligent nano/biomaterials and mediums for the creation of controlled release and targeted drug delivery systems. Researchers are currently focusing their efforts on high-level experimental investigations to produce unique and intelligent biomaterials and matrices for the creation of controlled release and targeted drug delivery systems. There is a need for more research into nanovaccines and nanosensors to combat pathogenic viruses, especially human and animal CoVs. Throughout history, many people have died as a result of numerous epidemics and pandemics. Meanwhile, crisis management power could be highly effective in managing current and future outbreaks by utilizing new solutions, intelligent management, and intelligent and modern technology, notably upcoming nanotechnologies. The major obstacles for medication researchers include global spread and the high fatality rate of coronaviruses. Many nanobased platforms for an antiviral vaccine have been approved by drug and food organizations, as well as other administrations; therefore, the development of such vaccines using nanotechnology for COVID-19 is extremely advantageous. Hollow nanomaterials are used with different mechanisms for promising antiviral activities due to their different characteristics, such as surface charges, surface area, and size, and make them an excellent tool for viral diagnostics and treatment. The continued danger of acute respiratory diseases such as MERS-CoV needs the development of a strong and safe vaccination approach based on innovative vaccine technology and efficient preventative measures.

Coronaviruses are classified as alpha, beta, gamma, delta, or omicron and have a variety of genetic architectures. People and animals are more affected by alpha- and beta-coronaviruses, which induce gastroenteritis in animals and respiratory problems in humans. Wide surface area, high electrical conductivity, and high carrier mobility have all been used to produce biosensors for the detection of viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus, influenza, and other viral infections. These tools may swiftly and reliably examine a patient's physiological condition. Rapid and portable SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic testing may be possible with biosensors and other hollow nanomaterial-based detection approaches. SARSCoV- 2 identification using RT–PCR is a vital step in COVID-19 management.

However, there are some disadvantages to this method, including poor extraction effectiveness, a long operation, and false positives owing to contamination. Hollow nanomaterials have been employed to build viral detection technologies due to their huge surface area and ultrasmall size. Metal nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, QDs, polymeric nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes are among the hollow nanomaterials that have been studied for their possible application in virus detection. Calorimetric, electrochemical, fluorescent, and optical techniques make up the bulk of these methods. Chemistry, molecular biology, material science, and biotechnology are all combined in hollow nanomaterial biosensors. They provide biosensors such high sensitivity that they can currently identify as few as a parasite per microliter of blood. Instead of RT–PCR, hollow nanomaterial-based techniques provide speedy and effective viral detection.

Hollow nanomaterials have antiviral biomedical applications due to their unique physical and chemical properties, such as superior biocompatibility, small sizes, good stability, unique structures, bioavailability, time-release control, large surface-to-volume ratios, and tunable surface load to encapsulate various drug types and improve solubility. Synthetic hollow nanoparticles have been shown to significantly improve vaccination safety and effectiveness. Antiviral coating materials are expected to include metal oxide nanostructures, titanium dioxide, carbon QDs, carbon nanotubes, and graphene bionanoparticles comprised of silicon, gold, graphene, and chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles. According to specialists, the coronavirus should be able to persist on varied surfaces for tens of hours to seven days. Face masks are comprised of nonwoven fabrics to minimize airborne transmission; an antiviral/antimicrobial coating adds another layer of protection against aggressive respiratory viruses. Because uncoated respiratory masks were shown to be the most infectious in studies of viral infectivity on coated and uncoated respiratory masks, a hybrid silica/silver nanocluster coating was sputter coated onto the top surface of disposable face masks to reduce SARS-CoV-2 virus transmission.

There are several potential for future studies based on the existing understanding of antiviral coating materials and prospective nanocoatings for stopping the transmission of the transferrable SARS-CoV-2 virus in response to the worldwide SARS-CoV-2 outbreak [47]. Surface contamination is currently removed using traditional disinfecting cleaning procedures; however, studies reveal that disinfection only gives short relief. Antiviral coatings have been shown to be extremely effective, but more research is clearly required [200]. New surface coating solutions based on current research and commercial goods can be produced when the world is upheaval, and it is unrealistic to supply a single solution for all sorts of surfaces [201].

Ionic liquids are fascinating chemical substances with applications in a wide range of fields. Ecologists, biochemists, and medical experts have paid close attention to the chemical and physical features of ionic liquids, as well as their remarkable biological activity [202]. The development and function of many drug carriers have been demonstrated to be influenced by ionic interactions [203]. We recommend using ionic liquid complexes for drug production and drug delivery systems because of their high loading efficiency, preservation of biomolecule activity, and simplicity of manufacture [204].

Compliance with Ethics Requirement

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Data Availability Statement

This work is a review article, and as such, readers will need to contact referenced authors to obtain additional information regarding the data presented.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Citation: Hussain A, Shabbir S and Faizan M. Progress of Hollow Materials in Diagnosis of Covid-19. Austin J Pharmacol Ther. 2022; 10(2).1163.

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