A Review on: Effect of Nutrients on Brain Function and Development

Abstract

Introduction: Nutrition is one of the critical factors that influence brain development, and has a significant impact on the brain’s developmental processes and functioning from foetal to adult age. Newborn human brains utilise 60% of the body’s total oxygen, which has an impact on calorie intake. For the anatomical and functional growth of the brain, all nutrients are essential, the ones that aid in energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism are especially significant.

Objectives: The aim of this review is to boost up memory through diet, to know about the Nutrients for the development of the brain and to ensure Foods that adversely affect normal brain function.

Methodology: This literature review consulted multiple databases, focusing on brain health and development, cognitive function, and maternal diet. The review included research from previous decades and analysed around 1,000 articles, with nearly 185 selected. The review assessed the relevance of the content to search terms, evaluating resources based on material quality, topicality, and publication year. The review discussed macronutrients and micronutrients, healthy and unhealthy foods, and maternal diets for foetal brain development.

Conclusion: Factors such as maternal diet and macro and micronutrient consumption significantly impact brain development and cognitive function. Nutrition is crucial for optimal brain health and preventing cognitive decline. Deficiencies and excesses of certain nutrients affect cognitive function differently. Vitamin A, LC-PUFAs, ketones, protein, zinc, neurotrophins, neuropeptides, choline deficiency, vitamin B, copper, lutein, and zeaxanthin are essential for brain health. Consuming foods like walnuts, dairy, fish, caffeine, and low glycemic index foods can be beneficial for brain health, while junk foods, refined sugar, and saturated fats can be harmful.

Keywords: Brain health; Nutrition; Nutrients cognitive function; Micronutrients

Introduction

Nutrition and Brain Development

Nutrition is one of the critical factors that influence brain development, and has a significant impact on the brain's developmental processes and functioning from foetal to adult age [62]. Throughout life, including early development during both the prenatal and postnatal stages, a balanced diet is crucial for mental health and brain development [41,117], including subsequent life stages [117]. In promoting the structural and functional development of the human cognitive function and brain, from conception, nutrition plays a major role during early infancy and continuing into later life [180,185]. Nutrition is vital for the maturation and functional development of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Brain development is a carefully controlled process involving cell division, differentiation, migration, and connectivity that depend on overlapping stages. Any disruption to this process can affect brain function [29]. Adequate nutrition is important during pregnancy [105,159] and the first few years of life, because it is during the prenatal and early postnatal period that the brain undergoes rapid growth and development, laying the foundation for cognitive, motor, and socioemotional skills [105]. It is becoming increasingly evident that nutrional status throughout foetal development and in a child's formative years has a significant effect on neurodevelopment [185]. Nutrition is especially important due to the role that nutrients play in specific metabolic pathways and structural components. For instance, it is widely recognized that a dietary deficiency during critical stages of development can cause permanent changes to the brain. Observational and experimental studies provide mounting evidence that nutrition during intrauterine development can impact cognitive development in offspring later in life [113].

Newborn human brains utilise 60% of the body's total oxygen, which has an impact on calorie intake [67]. Around the world, one-third of childrens do not develop to their fullest potential by the time they are in preschool. Low-and Middle-Income (LMIC) children are more vulnerable, with sub-Saharan Africa bearing a disproportionate share of the burden of cognitive impairment. It is commonly known that the most important time for brain development is the first 1000 days of life, from conception to age two (McCann et al., 2020). Dietary restriction is known to profoundly influence foetal brain development [103].

Maternal Diet

The role of maternal nutritional factors in foetal development appeared as important research during the 20th century. Maternal nutrition has a direct impact on foetal neurodevelopment, as diet and food choices play a significant role in defining maternal nutritional status [35]. For a healthy pregnancy and successful foetal development, the maternal diet is crucial [143]. Around 22 days after conception, foetal neurodevelopment starts, and it progresses quickly in the second and third trimesters [63].

It's essential to have proper nutrition from the start of pregnancy as it interferes with the neural tube and plate's development. Nutrients like folic acid, copper, and vitamin A play a crucial role in this process. The specific neurodevelopmental processes are also dependent on a number of nutrients. Different parts of the brain engage in each process at various, overlapping times. For instance, myelination of the brainstem auditory pathway starts from week 26 of pregnancy and lasts for at least a year after delivery. The formation of myelin requires fatty acids like Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) [143]. As the fetal brain develops quickly, inadequate maternal intake of vital nutrients throughout pregnancy can affect the development of the structure and components of the brain [113].

Necessary Nutrients for Brain Function

For the anatomical and functional growth of the brain, all nutrients are essential, the ones that aid in energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism are especially significant [67]. The three macronutrients that make up the body's main energy sources are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats [117]. Iodine, copper, zinc, and choline, vitamin A, and Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs) are additional nutrients that have significant impacts on brain structure. Through their impact on neurotransmitter concentrations, receptors, and re-uptake systems, nutrients also have an impact on how the brain functions. Nutritional factors that specifically affect neurotransmitter activity include protein, iron, zinc, copper, and choline. Through their impacts on metabolic rate, nutrients also have an impact on the electrophysiologic potential of neurons. Neuronal electrical potential generation is a high-energy activity that depends on functioning mitochondria producing enough ATP. As a result, the developing brain has a high requirement for nutrients that promote glycolytic and oxidative metabolism [67].

I. Carbohydrates

In Parenteral Nutrition (PN), glucose serves as the main non-protein energy source and, because it is quickly metabolised, is crucial for the growing brain after birth. As a result of their limited glycogen stores, preterm neonates require an adequate source of exogenous glucose to maintain proper growth and brain development. The neonatal period's demands for glucose change depending on the neonate's specific needs as well as the gestational age. An infusion rate of 3-5 mg/kg/min of glucose is enough for the majority of newborns [153].

II. Protein

Neonatal protein consumption is essential for the healthy development of the brain and lean body tissue [162]. A diet low in protein during pregnancy is linked to changes in the brain's oxidative state and neurotransmitters. As a result, psychosocial issues start in childhood and persist throughout adulthood [164]. Legumes are nutrient rich sources of protein [118].

III. Omega-3 Fatty

Lipids make up about 50-60% of the brain's weight, and 35% of those lipids are omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs). Over 40% of all omega-3 PUFAs, especially in the grey matter, are made up of Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) in neural tissue [50]. The brain lipid composition is unique and exceedingly diverse. The development of the brain is thought to depend on PUFAs from the omega-6 and omega-3 families, which are lipids that must be obtained from food. Beginning during gestation, the brain begins to accommodate both omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs, a process known as "accretion." The third trimester of pregnancy is when DHA accumulation begins in humans [109].

Omega-3 enhances mental function, protects neurons from degeneration, and preserves them [50]. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly prevalent in marine life and plant-based meals like grains and seeds. Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) occurs naturally in different types of fish, however they can be obtained indirectly from certain seeds and grain. ALA, which is normally transformed into EPA and DHA with the aid of particular enzymes, is the most common type of omega 3-fatty acids found in plant seeds and grains [86].

According to studies, fewer than 20% of people worldwide ingest more than 250 mg/day of n-3 LCPUFAs from seafood. The brain accumulates a significant amount of DHA during the first two years of life, both before and after birth [187]. Human neuroimaging research most recent findings imply that grey matter shrinkage in healthy, middle-aged, and elderly persons is associated with decreased intake of omega-3 PUFAs, without pre-existing neurological conditions, particularly in the areas of the brain such the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, anterior cingulate, and temporal cortex that are frequently linked to mood and psychotic illnesses [114].

IV. Zinc

Zinc, a necessary trace element, is crucial for brain growth, synaptic plasticity, and overall brain health [141,177]. The cerebral cortex, amygdala, olfactory bulb, and hippocampal neurons are among the regions of the brain that contain free zinc ion (Zn) neurons. The presence of zine is crucial for adult brain neurogenesis, which has profound effects on the hippocampal structure and function, including memory and learning as well as emotion and mood control [177]. Recommended daily intake of Zinc for men are 11mg and 8 mg for women [195]. Various illnesses, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and mood disorders, have been hypothesised to be influenced by changes in the amount of zinc in the brain [151]. Inadequate zinc during development can also disrupt brain function in the offspring, which might show as altered behaviour, motor and cognitive function, and attention symptoms, e.g. depression, and altered child psychomotor development [99]. Because the body cannot store zinc, it must be consumed regularly through diet to meet physiological requirements [25]. The main sources of zinc include dark green and dark yellow vegetables, shellfish, meat, eggs, cereals, peanuts, dairy products, and whole grains [87].

V. Choline

It is a necessary nutrient and is crucial for the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, maintaining the integrity of cell membranes, metabolism of methyl groups (which lowers homocysteine), transmission of neural impulses and lipid transport (lipoproteins) [55,81]. Additionally, choline is involved in memory, learning, cognitive function, and sensory processing. It is commonly known that choline aids with brain growth. Diet is the primary way that choline enters the body. Sufficient choline intake is also important during gestation as it contributes to the growth of the brain [81].

VI. Selenium

As a crucial micronutrient that controls growth, differentiation, and development, selenium (Se) is a trace element. According to available data, Se may be important throughout key stages of brain development. Se is co-translationally integrated into the polypeptide chain as part of the amino acid selenocysteine to produce selenoproteins, unlike other essential trace elements that play biological roles in proteins in the form of cofactors. Selenoproteins, of which 25 have been discovered, are essential for brain function [4]. Food sources of selenium are Brazil nuts and other nuts, grains, veggies, meats, and oil seeds [59].

VII. B Vitamins

B vitamins, in particular B6, B12, and folate, have an impact on how the central and peripheral nervous systems operate by helping to keep the nervous system healthy and enhancing neurological disorders even when a deficiency is not known to exist [81]. Numerous mental illnesses have been connected to vitamin B deficiency [52]. Thiamine is found in foods including powdered milk, eggs, almonds, oats, oranges, dry pulses, and liver [177].

Malnutrition

One of the key factors that can obstruct brain development is malnutrition [164]. Malnutrition presents in 3 forms - undernutrition, micronutrients deficiencies and over nutrition. An imbalance between dietary demands and nutrient intake that results in a cumulative loss of calories, protein, or micronutrients is referred to as paediatric malnutrition, also known as undernutrition and hidden hunger. Poor growth and impaired physical or mental development may be the results of such dietary deficiencies [125].

Malnutrition, including overnutrition and undernutrition, can lead to altered maternal nutrient use [35]. Nutritional deficiencies can affect the growth of the brain, synapse formation, and cell differentiation. Research on the effects of malnutrition on the Developing brains can be categorised into two types: studies that focus on clinical and physical brain growth and maturation and studies that focus on the development of "brain function," which includes neurological, psychomotor, and intellectual development [164].

Junk Foods Effects on the Brain

It is believed that the modern diet's food choices have a substantial environmental impact on teenage neurodevelopment. Young people are especially drawn to "junk foods'' because they are affordable, nutrient-deficient, and energy-dense. Adolescence is a pivotal phase when exposure to psychostimulants, cannabinoids, and high-fat or high-sugar diets can have pronounced and long-lasting negative impacts on cognition, behaviour, and learning, according to a growing body of research. Diets heavy in fat and sugar, in particular, quickly interfere with cognitive functions involving the hippocampus. Studies conducted on humans also show a link between worse cognitive abilities in the adolescent population and consumption of unhealthy diets, particularly those high in dietary fat [152].

A Western Diet (WD) Is linked to decreased cognitive function across the lifespan [183]. Recent research has revealed that American adults consume more saturated fats and added sugars than the 5-10% range advised by the US Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services. American adults consume about 12% of their daily energy intake from saturated fats and 13% from added sugars. However, it has been discovered that eating a high-fat diet has a deleterious impact on human memory performance, notably in the hippocampus [175].

Objectives

1. To boost up memory through diet

2. Nutrients for the development of the brain

3. Foods that adversely affect normal brain function

Review of Literature

Nutrition and Brain Development

One of the significant factors that influence brain development is nutrition [62]. Nutrition is especially important during pregnancy and infancy [143], and plays an essential function in assisting the anatomical and functional evolution of the human brain and cognitive system from conception through early childhood and into old age [113,180,185]. The most crucial time for brain development is generally acknowledged to be the first 1,000 days of life, from conception to age two [49] (McCann et al., 2020). To ensure proper neurodevelopment and lifelong brain function, it is important to have an adequate supply of nutrients during this period [45]. Nutrition influences development of the brain after birth and during the prenatal period as well [49]. In adults, the brain makes up 25% of body weight and consumes 20% of total energy intake; in children, it makes up 5-10% of body weight and controls 50% of metabolic rate [170].

A healthy diet Is essential for normal brain development, optimising brain function and preventing cognitive decline [143,148]. Cognitive function refers to a range of brain functions and processes, such as receiving external information, internally processing it, and responding with a behaviour [12]. The Central Nervous System's (CNS) growth and development require proper nutrition [29]. Childhood emotional and behavioural dysregulation is linked to dietary restriction, poor maternal nutrition status, and early diet [103,110].

Cell differentiation, migration, and connection are all tightly regulated processes during the development of the brain that depend on momentarily overlapping stages. The brain function could be impacted by any disruption to this mechanism [29]. During development, the human brain is formed in the late period of pregnancy and initial postnatal periods [14]. Early in the brain's development, neuronal and glial cells separate from precursor cells and move to take up their final locations. The brain over produces neurons and synaptic connections at this period, and between the ages of 1 and 2 years, the brain reaches its peak synapse creation. Synaptic pruning refers to the removal of redundant synapses and cells by microglia [160]. The primary immune-competent cells of the CNS, microglia, play a significant role in all aspects of brain growth and function [18]. Inflammation of the nervous system and brain development are crucially dependent on microglia [95,160].

The last step Myelin sheaths are formed during the foetal brain's development, creating an insulating layer that enables quick signal transmission. The CNS's stem cells continue to differentiate into neural or glial cells that move into the cerebral white or grey matter even beyond adulthood [52].

60% of the body's overall oxygen and calorie usage occurs in the neonatal human brain [67]. Around the world, one-third of children’s do not develop to their fullest potential by the time they are in preschool. Children growing up in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) are most at risk, and sub-Saharan Africa has one of the highest rates of cognitive deficiency (McCann et al., 2020).

Maternal Diet

In the 20th century, research on the role of maternal nutritional factors in offspring development became a crucial area of study. An optimal maternal nutrient supply and food choices can directly influence fetal neurodevelopment [35]. Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy can negatively impact placentation, resulting in changes to placental size. shape, and blood flow, which may lessen the fetus's access to nutrition. Later, the foetal nutrition status is disturbed, which has dramatic consequences on organogenesis, growth, and programming and has been linked to both short and long-term effects on development and morbidity [108].

Healthy pregnancy and successful foetal development depend on the food of the mother. Approximately 22 days after conception [143], the brain and spinal cord develop from an ectoderm region referred as neural plate [181]. Proper nutrition is crucial from the beginning, as vitamins and minerals like copper, folic acid, and vitamin A can affect how the neural plate and neural tube develop. For particular neurodevelopmental processes, a number of nutrients are required. In various parts of the brain, each process happens in distinct, overlapping time periods. By way of illustration, myelination of the brainstem auditory circuit begins from week 26 of pregnancy and lasts for at least a year after birth. Fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3) are necessary for myelination. [143]. Human studies suggest that prenatal inflammation and low consumption of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) can have a negative impact on neurodevelopment, leading to long-lasting consequences on behaviour [95].

As the fetal brain grows quickly, the structure and functioning of the developing brain might be impacted by low maternal consumption of essential nutrients during pregnancy [113]. Malnutrition in mothers can alter the brain development of the embryo, leading to changes in developmental tendencies that may impact leaming, memory, and social-emotional processes. Deficiencies that occur in the postnatal period can persist throughout adulthood, and may increase the possibility of developing schizophrenia, personality problems, and other psychiatric illnesses including depression [29.

Nutrients for Brain Function

All nutrients are important for all cells to function [41]. However, certain nutrients are essential for the anatomical and functional growth and development of the brain, and they are especially crucial for the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates for energy. Iodine, zinc, copper, choline, iron, folate, iodine vitamin A, D, B6, B12, and Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs) are additional nutrients with significant impacts on brain morphology and neurotransmitter function [67,155,192]. Micronutrients are essential dietary components [166] that make up the CNS structure and play major functional roles [71]. Lifelong impairments in brain function may result from failing to provide these essential nutrients throughout the crucial time of brain development [192].

The nutrients have an impact on the metabolic rate, which has an impact on the electrophysiologic potential of neurons. A healthy mitochondrion must produce sufficient amounts of ATP in order for neurons to generate their electrical potential, which is a highly energy-intensive activity. In order to maintain glycolytic and oxidative metabolism, the developing brain is highly dependent on certain nutrients [67].

I. Carbohydrates

Despite the adult brain accounting for only 2% of body weight, it requires a significantly higher amount of energy. 20-23% of the body's overall energy needs, mostly in the form of glucose, are met through this action [39]. The brain mostly uses glucose as fuel, the brain also has an alternative fuel for occasions when glucose supply is inadequate, such as extended fasting, starvation, intense exercise, nutritional ketosis, or malnutrition [39,69]. In that it specifically requires ketones (also known as ketone bodies) [39]. Ketones are an important substitute fuel for glucose for the brain during fasting intervals and extended exercise. Due to their increased oxidative efficiency and competition with pyruvate for entry into the citric acid cycle during fasting or calorie restriction, plasma ketones (acetoacetate [AcAc] and -hydroxybutyrate [BHB]) rise and reduce the need for brain glucose [186].

The principal glucose catabolic pathways, which are crucial for neurons, are likely mostly divided between astrocytes and neurons. The most prevalent glial cells in the brain, astrocytes, carry out a variety of tasks in the Central Nervous System (CNS), including synaptic transmission and synaptogenesis as well as energy storage in the form of glycogen. According to recent research, astrocytic lactate transporters cause molecular alterations important for memory formation and intraneuronal lactate import is required for long-term memory and glycogenolysis [83].

In addition, there is growing evidence linking the amount of carbohydrates in breast milk to a baby's neurodevelopment. Breast milk carbs have an impact on neurodevelopmental results in addition to somatic growth outcomes [16]. The milk from a mother is examined to be the ideal resource for infant nutrition [111]. Infant somatic development and breast milk fructose were positively correlated [16]. Carbohydrates, particularly oligosaccharides, are a crucial component in breast milk that aid in the development of the brain. Mature human milk has a carbohydrate content of about 7% [17]. Cereals have been important source of carbohydrates [89].

II. Protein

Protein intake was positively associated with cognitive function [100]. Neonatal protein consumption is necessary for the proper development of lean body tissue, and particularly the brain [162]. During pregnancy, an inadequate protein intake is linked to changes in the brain's oxidative state and neurotransmitters. As a result, psychosocial issues start in childhood and persist throughout maturity [164].

Neurotrophins are important for brain function in humans [115]. Small proteins called neurotrophins, which are found in the brain and other tissues, control a number of crucial elements of neuronal function, such as neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection, as well as programmed cell death [130]. Along with neurotrophins, neuropeptides such as neuropeptide Y are crucial for various pregnancy processes and foetal brain development [158].

The activity of the brain's satiety centers has been found to be influenced by high protein diets [70,196]. It has been demonstrated that a high protein diet affects the function of the brain's satiety centers. Gastric hormones like cholecystokinin and the vagal nerve may interact to send protein signals to the brain [43]. Legumes are nutrient-rich source of protein [118]. Protein is largely obtained from milk and dairy products like cheese and yoghurt [196]. For adults, 0.8 g/kg BW of protein is the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) [98].

III. Omega-3 fatty acids

The brain has a distinctive and incredibly complex lipid makeup [109]. The brain's most prevalent fatty acids, Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs), are crucial for the formation and growth of the brain [134]. A lipid-based structural component makes up 50-60% of the brain, of which 35% and 30% are omega-3 (PUFAs) [5,14,50]. During development, the buildup of PUFA in the brain is essential [5].

The brain contains a high concentration of the fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; n-3 PUFA) and Arachidonic Acid (AA; omega (n)-6 PUFA), which together account for nearly 90% of the brain's PUFAs [109]. DHA, is one of the most studied LCPUFA [34], which is accumulated during the brain growth spurt beginning in the second half of pregnancy, especially in the first two years of life, which are crucial for the development of the central nervous system and other functional organs [96,160,186]. DHA is crucial for brain homeostasis during fetal development [74]. DHA has been reported to affect cognitive functions such as working memory, mental agility, information processing rate and motor neuronal preservation, and protection against neurodegeneration [50].

DHA, although being a highly unsaturated fatty acid, can act as an antioxidant in a brain that is prone to oxidation. Detoxifying enzymes support DHA's antioxidant defence in brain cells [15]. Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD), among other neurodegenerative diseases, were protected against by DHA [74]. Omega-3 (EPA and DHA), have attracted great attention for their ability to prevent cognitive decline as a result of the anti-inflammatory and anti- amyloidogenic properties of PUFAs [31]. The physiology of the brain is significantly influenced by omega-6 and omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) [19]. The balance of n-6/n-3 PUFAs during prenatal development has an impact on the hippocampus by influencing neurogenesis. The structure of the adult hippocampus may also be affected by the balance of n-6/n-3 PUFA throughout adulthood [156]. Due to the body's inability to synthesize either n-6 or n-3 PUFA endogenously, both are considered essential fatty acids that must be obtained through diet [109,197] while Long-Chain (LC) PUFAs, EPA, and DHA can be synthesized endogenously from their precursor 3 or 06 PUFA or obtained through direct dietary consumption or supplementation [197]. Both n-3 and n-6 PUFAs begin to be incorporated into the brain during pregnancy, a process known as "accretion." In humans, DHA accretion starts at the beginning of the third trimester of pregnancy and continues throughout this trimester [109,150].

While pregnant women are advised to consume enough n-3 fatty acids. By activating PPAR-Y, increased n-3 LCPUFA consumption during pregnancy and lactation promotes the development of the developing brain [15]. The prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, anterior cingulate, and temporal cortex are among the brain regions frequently linked to mood and psychotic disorders, and recent evidence from human neuroimaging studies suggests that decreased omega-3 PUFA intake is linked to faster grey matter atrophy in healthy. middle-aged, and elderly adults [114]. A higher intake of omega-3 PUFA might be linked to a decrease in AD risk [74].

Diet rich in PUFAs from the omega-6 and omega-3 families are considered crucial for brain development and have been linked to improve memory [109,126]. While ingestion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (DHA) has positive effects in their prevention, high saturated fat intake has been linked to cognitive decline [155].

High concentrations of Omega-3 fatty acids can be found in marine life and plant-based foods like grains and seeds. Plant seeds and grains which are rich in omega-3 fatty acids are found in the form of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA,C18:3 n-3), which is transformed into Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and DHA by a set of particular enzymes. Fish types contain EPA and DHA directly. whereas they can be found in grains and seeds in an indirect manner [86]. Human milk is a common and natural source of LCPUFA and DHA [34]. The ALA, is also present in addition to soybean and canola oil, in flaxseed oil and walnuts, and the EPA and DHA are found in seafood [58]. Preferable neurocognitive development of the offspring is linked to the ingestion of commercially available fish during pregnancy [27].

A normal Western diet has an increased 20-30:1 n-6 to n-3 PUFA ratio [5]. N-3 LCPUFAs, which comprise DHA and EPA, are mostly obtained from oily fish [90,180]. Previous research have suggested that eating fatty fish and its component n-3 fatty acids improves brain health and neurocognitive development [90]. Less than 20% of the world's population is thought to ingest more than 250 mg/day of seafood-origin n-3 LCPUFA, according to research on the global intake of these fats [187]. The recommended amount of omega-3 fatty acid consumption is 0.6-1.2% of total calorie intake [184]. For the processing of LLC-n3-Fatty acids, astrocytes in the brain are a key location [77].

After weaning, n-3 PUFA supplementation cannot repair the negative effects of PUFA deficit that occur during pregnancy and breastfeeding on the brain neurogenesis and apoptosis of the adult offspring [57]. Lack of N-3 PUFAs disrupts neurotransmission, neuritogenesis, and synaptic fine-tuning, resulting in a variety of neurobehavioral disorders [95]. Numerous studies show that elderly people's brain health and cognition are improved by LC-n3-FA ingestion through fish or fish oil supplements [77].

IV. Vitamin A

Fat-soluble vitamin A is a necessary nutrient that is fat-soluble and can be obtained from both plant- and animal-based sources [133]. The mother needs vitamin A and the compounds that are derived from it during pregnancy for the maintenance of the placenta, and the embryo needs it for the formation and development of many different organs, including the heart, eye, kidney, lung, limbs, spinal cord, and brain. Vitamin A is stored in the placenta and is released to the developing foetus during pregnancy. This storing process helps ensure that retinoids are adequately delivered to protect the developing fetus in situations where mothers don't consume enough [20].

The hippocampus, which is important for learning and memory, as well as the hypothalamus. which is important for maintaining the body's internal physiological equilibrium, all depend on vitamin A [171], It is well-known that both vitamin A deficiency and excess during prenatal and postnatal life can lead to birth defects, also known as teratogenic effects [201]. Vitamin A deficiency can negatively impact the hypothalamus, which may result in a decreased appetite and growth [171].

Vitamin A cannot be synthesised by the body, it must be consumed through diet [126]. Functional Vitamin A concentrations are highest in liver and fish oils [146]. The liver has around 90% of vitamin A [201]. Glandular meat, red palm oil, milk, egg yolk, carrots, tomatoes, apricots, green vegetables, fortified processed food that may include cereals, condiments and fats are all rich in Vitamin A [54,149]. Breast milk is one of the primary sources of vitamin A for infants [54].

V. Zinc

Zinc (Zn) is a crucial trace element that is crucial for brain health, development and synaptic plasticity [141,177]. The hippocampus, cerebral cortex, thalamus, and olfactory cortex have the largest concentrations of it, along with the amygdala and cerebral cortex [92]. Offspring may experience impaired brain performance caused by a lack of zinc during development, which can result in modified behavior, cognitive and motor performance, attentive symptoms, such as depression, and altered child psychomotor development [99]. Both excess and deficiency is associated with cognitive decline. Approximately 150 μmol/L is the average concentration of zinc ions [174].

A crucial step in the CNS's growth is neurogenesis [92]. Zinc's importance for neurogenesis in the adult brain has wide-ranging effects on how the hippocampal region functions in terms of memory and learning as well as emotion and mood regulation. Zinc supplementation (15 or 30 mg/day) was tested in 387 healthy individuals between the ages of 55 and 87 in a study on the relationship between zinc and cognitive function in adults. Each zinc dose taken over a three-month period, the study found, improved spatial working memory. One of the few studies on the relationship between zinc and cognitive function in adults looked at the effects of zinc supplementation (15 or 30 mg/day) in 387 healthy individuals aged 55 to 87 years and found that each dose had a beneficial impact on spatial working memory over the course of three months [177].

A lack of zinc is linked to a number of different mental illnesses. Inadequate levels of zinc affect behaviour, mental health, and brain development since it is essential for neuronal impulses. A number of diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and mood disorders, have been associated to changes in brain zinc levels [151]. There is a higher risk of zinc insufficiency throughout pregnancy and older infancy [112].

To achieve nutritional demands for zinc, which cannot be stored by the body, one must consume it frequently [25]. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, suggest a daily consumption of 8 mg of zinc for women and 11 mg for men. These values can be increased during pregnancy. The vast majority of Zinc intake comes from food [195]. The highest amounts of zinc were found in oyster, fortified breakfast cereals, beef meat, pumpkin and squash seed kernels [61,195].

VI. Choline

Choline is one of the vital nutrients necessary for normal brain development and may be the first step in the pathogenesis of the psychotic spectrum [45,65,66]. Choline is recognised to aid in the growth of the brain [81]. Acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter choline, cell membrane integrity, methyl-group metabolism (homocysteine reduction), the transmission of brain impulses, and lipid transport (lipoproteins) are all significant functions of choline [81,55]. Choline also contributes in sensory processing, memory, learning, and neurocognition [81,131]. During pregnancy, it's critical to consume enough choline since it helps with brain growth [81].

Choline deficiency can cause irreversible impairments. Lifelong deficiencies in brain function may occur if choline is not provided during the first 1000 days of life [45]. It has been demonstrated that low maternal choline intakes during pregnancy increase the incidence of neural tube abnormalities, a cleft palate and suboptimal brain development among the fetus and in infants [192,193].

Normally, choline is ingested into the body through food [81]. The best sources of choline are liver, wheat germ, milk, eggs, meat, fish, poultry, and dairy products. Choline is also present in some plant foods, such as cruciferous vegetables and some legumes [55,131,192]. Eggs, on the other hand, are a more concentrated source of choline. For pregnant women, 450 mg/day of choline is considered a sufficient dose [13,72], 550 mg per day for nursing mothers [72,131] 550 mg per day for men and 425 mg per day for women [189]. Animal studies have suggested that providing choline supplements during pregnancy can lead to better cognitive outcomes in offspring [78].

VII. Selenium

The trace element selenium (Se) is a vital micronutrient that controls growth, development, and differentiation [4]. Selenium seems to have greater effects on brain development in comparison to other microelements [122]. According to the available evidence, Se may be important throughout crucial stages of brain development [4]. Its influence is mediated primarily through selenoproteins [140]. To create selenoproteins, se is co-translationally integrated into the polypeptide chain as a component of the amino acid selenocysteine. There are 25 selenoproteins that have been identified, and they are crucial for brain function [4].

Neurodevelopment and maternal selenium levels have been linked in similar ways [188]. Thus, in connection to prenatal Se levels, impacts on a child's cognitive development have been identified that are favourable, negative, and null (Amoros et al., 2018). In the first two years of life, these levels were favourably correlated with a child's psychomotor development [141]. Age-related cognitive decline, decreased coordination, motor speed, and muscle strength was all linked to low Se levels in humans [200].

Exposure to this element mainly occurs through diet, particularly through seafood and fish and through meat, cereals and eggs [188,190] whereas the selenium level in plant-based diets varies depending on the region of cultivation [188]. Se is also present in breast milk (Amoros et al., 2018). During pregnancy, the requirement for selenium increases. General recommendation of selenium for pregnant women is 60 μg/d [168]. The daily selenium allowance for newborns up to four months old is 10 μg (0.13 μmol), while 15 g (0.19 mol) of recommended intake is for infants between the ages of 4 and 12 [188].

VIII. B Vitamins

Vitamins of the B group are water-soluble vitamins with many positive effects on the nervous system [106]. B vitamins being necessary for every facet of brain function [85]. The B vitamins B6, folate (B9), and B12 have drawn the most attention in studies examining their effects on brain development [148]. B6, B9, and B12, affect both the peripheral and central nervous systems' functionality by improving neurological conditions and maintaining a healthy nervous system, even when a deficiency is not determined [81]. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) word acquisition and recall modules were used to examine the relationship between dietary intakes of vitamins B6, B9, and B12 and cognitive function in the elderly [199].

Folate, also known as Vitamin B9 [191] has special importance in pregnancy [191]. Pregnant women should consume at least 400 μg (mcg) folic acid [23], preferably a month before conceiving [108]. Folate is naturally found in many food sources [191]. Leafy greens, seeds, fortified cereals, and folic acid supplements are all natural sources of dietary folate [63]. Recent work promote the consumption of folate-abundant plants along with the addition of foods high in folate, including bread and eggs. Meanwhile, animal liver is a plentiful natural supply of folate but is frequently disregarded [42].

Vitamin B6 (Thiamine) can be consumed in its purest form through fish, liver, pork, fortified cereals, eggs, nuts, oats, oranges, dried beans, yeast, powdered milk, potatoes, dark leafy greens, and chickpeas [63,177]. The main dietary source of vitamin B12 is found in foods including meat, milk, eggs, fish, and shellfish that are sourced from animals [194]. Liver in particular is a very rich source of Vitamin B12, followed by kidney and heart [169]. Compared to non-vegetarians, vegetarians are more susceptible to vitamin B12 insufficiency [194].

Numerous mental illnesses have been connected to vitamin B deficiency [52] like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease [106]. In later life, vitamin B insufficiency and elevated total plasma homocysteine levels have been related to poor cognitive function, cognitive decline, and dementia [60,93]. In both the cognitive-domain and global cognition trials, allocating to B vitamins was linked to a 28.4% and 26.1% decrease in homocysteine plasma concentrations [32]. Evidence shows that vitamin B supplementation may lowers the homocysteine level that reduce cognitive decline [204]. To prevent neural tube closure problems, which affect about 50% of the population, and to further benefit children's neurodevelopment, folic acid supplementation has been frequently recommended to expectant mothers [131,147].

Studies have shown that a lack of folate is associated with changes in offspring' neurodevelopment, include changes in neurogenesis and neuronal death, changed cortica thickness and cerebral white matter, and decreased overall brain volume. These modifications have been associated with alterations in brain activity in children, including memory, mo function, linguistic abilities, and psychological problems [191].

In particular, the metabolism and transport of glucose are sensitive to the brain. The function of pancreatic beta cells, gluconeogenesis (and lipogenesis), insulin receptor transcription, and hepatic glucose uptake are all significantly regulated by biotin (vitamin B7) [85].

IX. Vitamin D

During the past decades, numerous studies that demonstrate the relationship between vitamin D and brain health as well as the effects of vitamin D insufficiency on the brain have been reviewed [7]. The nervous system's health and disease are affected by vitamin D and its metabolites in a variety of ways [44]. During foetal development, growth, and senescence, vitamin D may be essential for improving neurocognition; but, in maturity, it may have little (or no) effect [8]. Vitamin D may influence particular neurotransmitters and cortical function [37]. Vitamin D has crucial roles in the brain's calcium signalling, proliferation and differentiation, as well as neurotrophic and neuroprotective activities. It may also change synaptic plasticity and neurotransmission [73].

Vitamin D can impact the brain through different mechanisms, such as regulating neurotrophic growth factors, influencing inflammation, and thrombosis [127]. Numerous research has examined the associations between maternal Vitamin D (VD) insufficiency and the brain health of offspring. The placenta allows vitamin D to pass from the mother to the foetus. thus, the mother is the sole source of vitamin D substrate for her developing child. Studies have suggested that low maternal VD levels could affect neuronal development and lead to the beginning of mental disorders like schizophrenia and autism [138].

It has been shown that vitamin D status affect brain cell differentiation. Numerous clinical brain conditions are connected to vitamin D levels (Eyles, 2020). Dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease have all been associated with low vitamin D levels [36]. However, the causality of the association between VD and dementia has not been confirmed [127]. Interestingly, some studies have shown that VD deficiency is linked to reduced hippocampus volumes, which is a brain region that has a crucial role in memory and learning [36]. Worldwide, there is a high prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency [73]. Numerous studies have found a connection between adult vitamin D insufficiency and some neurodegenerative diseases [38].

By exposing skin to sunlight, vitamin D can be produced internally in the body [65,120] and from foods and supplements that include the vitamins D2 and D3 ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol, respectively [120]. The primary nutritional source of vitamin D2 is mushrooms (Janousek et al., 2022), along with fatty fish and eggs, whereas most of vitamin D3 is synthesised within the body [10]. Natural dietary sources of vitamin D3 is also present in small amounts in the diet of animal origin and include fatty fish, egg yolks, liver oils, dairy products, and supplements [12] (Janousek et al., 2022). In humans, most vitamin D is acquired by vitamin D3 production in the skin [107]. Vitamin D supplements is readily available and affordable [73] and should be integrated into the care management of older adults with cognitive disorders [8].

X. Copper

Trace elements such as copper (required in amounts 1 to 100 mg/day by adults) are essential micronutrients [206], for brain health [3]. However, it may be hazardous when administered in excess [91]. Astrocytes are regarded as crucial controllers of copper homeostasis in the brain. Menkes disease, Wilson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease are just a few of the conditions that have been linked to impaired homeostatic systems of copper metabolism in humans [6,161].

Several biological activities require copper, including controlling intracellular signal transduction, balancing catecholamine levels, promoting neuronal myelination, and facilitating efficient synaptic transmission in the central nervous system [6]. Milk, is a dietary source of copper [144]. Food and water are the main sources of copper intake [198]. Sources of copper include dietary categories such nuts and offal, and to a lesser extent grains and fruit [21].

XI. Lutein and zeaxanthin

Zeaxanthin and lutein operate widely in several brain areas [47]. The carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin (L+Z) build up in neural tissue and may have positive effects on cognition [26]. Lutein intake is associated with positive outcomes in brain health [121]. Lutein is particularly distributed in gray matter, and has been identified in the prefrontal cortex, the temporal cortex, and the hippocampus. Of particular concern, lutein levels have been associated with memory and general intelligence [202].

L and Z have been suggested to benefit cognitive function and neural outcomes in older adults through dietary intake [119]. For instance, consuming a diet high in carotenoids in late middle age was linked to higher executive functioning, working memory, verbal fluency, and episodic memory 13 years later. By improving cell membrane fluidity, permeability, stability, thickness, and ion exchange, L and Z may also have good impacts on neurocognitive performance [101]. L and Z in neural tissue can have various biological effects, such as antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and structural actions [82].

Since L and Z cannot be synthesised in the body, they must be obtained from diet, specifically through green vegetables, coloured fruits, and other dietary sources [101]. 1-3 mg/day of L. and Z are often found in a typical US diet. In addition to egg yolks, common sources of these carotenoids include green leafy vegetables including kale, spinach, broccoli, peas, and lettuce. Einkorn, Khorasan, and durum wheat, maize, and their food items also contain them in rather large concentrations. The ratio of L to Z in green vegetables has been observed to range between 12 and 63, with kale having the highest value, while this ratio ranges between 0.1 and 1.4 in yellow-orange fruits and vegetables [1].

Relationship between Healthy and Unhealthy Foods and Brain

Walnut diet can enhance memory and cognitive level [2], Consuming walnuts in your diet might reduce oxidative stress by lowering the production of free radicals and improving antioxidant defence, which will limit oxidative damage to lipids and protein [28]. Walnut extracts could decrease Amyloid-Β fibrillation and aggregation, indicating their positive impact on memory and cognition [2].

English walnuts are abundant in Linoleic Acid (LA), Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), polyphenolics, phytosterols, and micronutrients [2,142] which, regardless of age, have been found to enhance brain health and function. In addition to 4.4 g of saturated (palmitic acid, 16:0) and 8.7 g of monounsaturated (oleic acid, 18:1n-9) fatty acids, each 100 g of walnuts (Juglans regia) contains 38 g of LA and 9 g of ALA [142].

The findings suggested that eating more 'healthy' foods such fruit, vegetables, seafood, and whole grains was associated with a lower risk of depression [79]. Healthy eating habits have been demonstrated to be inversely associated to the likelihood of, or risk for, depression in recent systematic studies looking at the connection between nutrition and common mental diseases. Such diets emphasize eating fruit, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and seafood while limiting the intake of processed foods. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that unhealthy diets high in processed, high-fat, high-sugar meals during adolescence and adulthood are positively connected with the prevalent mental disorders, sadness, and anxiety [110].

The benefits of caffeine for the brain are numerous. Only those who are sensitive to caffeine may experience sleep disruption. Caffeine is not dangerous whether used in doses of 200 mg in a single sitting (equivalent to about 2½ cups of coffee) or 400 mg per day (equivalent to about 5 cups of coffee). Long-term coffee use has been associated with reducing the risk of stroke, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease as well as preventing cognitive decline [128].

High nutrient intake can have negative impacts on cognition through promoting atherosclerosis, hypertension, and poor glycemic management [184]. A considerable and long-lasting effect on cognition can be produced by calorie intake and diet composition. There is evidence that certain dietary elements may reduce the incidence of age-related cognitive decline and AD, such as antioxidant or vitamin foods, fish, and dietary fats [24].

The research suggests that eating a balanced diet that prioritises consuming fish, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds while limiting the consumption of added sugars will significantly slow and reduce cognitive decline [184]. Diets with a low glycemic index have been shown to improve cognition, memory, and functional capacity, whereas diets high in simple sugars have been connected to attention and concentration problems. The manufacture of neurotransmitters, especially serotonin and catecholamines, requires a steady supply of amino acids in the brain. Reduced memory, thinking, and learning have been linked to low serotonin levels (RM et al., 2018). Low serotonin levels and impaired brain function are both likely to be linked to excessive sugar consumption [135].

Choline, iron, iodine, vitamins B1, B6, B12, D, and folic acid have been shown to enhance cognitive function and have neuroprotective benefits. Antioxidants like vitamins C, E, and A. zinc, selenium, lutein, and zeaxanthin are essential for preventing the oxidative stress that is associated with cognitive decline and for enhancing cognition. However, the current trend of consuming diets that are low in fruits, vegetables, and water and heavy in refined sugars, saturated fats, and sodium may be detrimental to cognitive function (RM et al., 2018). Toxic trace elements, such as lead, methylmercury, arsenic and manganese have constantly been shown to impair neurodevelopment [88].

Dairy products have been extensively studied and are considered nutrient-dense and health- promoting, providing numerous health benefits to consumers [76]. While it has been suggested that dairy consumption can affect cognition, though, evidence to support this claim is limited and inconsistent [129]. Several countries dietary guidelines have recommended a serving of dairy products, at least one, per day. But even in the United States, a large number of people do not consume the recommended 3 cups of dairy products each day [76].

According to recent research, American adults get 13% of their daily energy from added sugars and 12% of their daily energy from saturated fats, which is much more than the 5-10% that the US Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services recommend, Despite this, a high-fat diet has been demonstrated to negatively impact hippocampus-dependent memory function in humans [175].

In the present review, only a few epidemiological research were discussed, regarding the effect of consuming fermented foods on brain function [167]. Fermented foods are regarded as functional foods due to their potential health benefits [11]. Studies suggest that Fermented Papaya Preparation (FPP) has antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties. The extract of yeast-fermented papaya was discovered to enhance both short- and long-term memory. Human studies likewise demonstrated that FPP can enhance memory functions (Kim et al., 2017). Numerous studies have revealed that consuming soybeans that have been fermented such as tempeh does not have a detrimental effect on cognitive performance. In fact, high tofu consumption, a form of soybean curd, has been linked to reduced memory [167].

Malnutrition

One of the main factors that can prevent proper brain development is malnutrition [164]. Malnutrition is the result of insufficient, excessive, or changed differential percentages of calories, macronutrients, or micronutrients. An urgent worldwide health and socioeconomic burden that is becoming more closely associated with neurodevelopmental problems is malnutrition, particularly in the early years of life [33]. Under and overnutrition in mothers during pregnancy have been shown to negatively affect foetal brain development and child behaviour in studies using both human epidemiologic data and animal models [51].

Malnutrition manifests in three ways: undernutrition, hidden hunger (deficiencies in some micronutrients) and over nutrition. An imbalance between dietary demands and nutrient intake that results in a cumulative loss of calories, protein, or micronutrients is referred to as paediatric malnutrition, also known as undernutrition and hidden hunger. Poor growth and impaired physical or mental development may be the results of such dietary deficiencies [125]. Malnutrition, whether it is in the form of a lack of macronutrients or micronutrients, can have an immediate effect on brain development and operation [185]. Nutritional deficiencies can affect the growth of the brain, synapse formation, and cell differentiation [164].

Impact of Junk Food on Brain

Fast food is also called Junk food [165]. Young people are especially drawn to "junk foods" since they are affordable and easily accessible while being high in energy and low in nutrients [152]. Junk foods are rich in calories, salt and fats [9,165]. Compressively, the total fat content of junk food can range from 20.8% to 36% [178]. While quickly raising and lowering insulin levels, junk food is changing the structure and function of the human brain [84]. Some examples of junk foods are skated snacked foods, candy, pizza, burgers, sandwich, pastries, hot dogs, gum, samosa, chocolates, most sugary foods, desserts, fried fast food, and fizzy beverages [9,84].

A diet of poorer quality, which excludes items like vegetables, fruit, and sources of healthy fats like fish, nuts, and vegetable oils, and includes processed meals, fast food, refined grains, animal fats, and is high in added sugars, can have a negative effect on mental health (Mechlinska et al., 2022). Regular consumption of fast food and junk food may cause nutritional deficiency as well as cognitive and aberrant behaviour development [84]. Even with small effects, continuous use of junk food might increase the symptoms of mental disease [75]. Adolescents consuming high-fat diets, including junk food, may experience cerebral dysfunction, and whether any changes to brain function are irreversible or permanent. Urban adolescents also show evidence of depression associated with junk food consumption [178].

Investigations were also done into the combined effects of using junk food and drinking energy drinks. High caffeine beverages include energy drinks that are advertised to enhance both mental and physical stimulation. Energy drinks mostly consist of caffeine and sugar. The most well- known use for caffeine is as a CNS stimulant [135] (Vandewoude et al., 2016). This causes serotonin and noradrenaline neurons to fire. Energy drinks with caffeine may also activate methylxanthine, which may be associated to psychological conditions like memory, anxiety, or sleep [152].

Currently, the diet is suggested to have a potent influence of the environment on adolescent neurodevelopment [152]. Consuming junk food during pregnancy can cause structural and functional alterations in the brain's reward networks that are long-lasting (Muhlhausler et al., 2017). An increasing body of research has demonstrated that adolescence is a crucial time when exposure to alcohol, psychostimulants, cannabis, and a high-fat or high-sugar diet has pronounced and long-lasting negative consequences on cognition, behaviour, and learning. Especially high sugar and fat content diets rapidly disrupt the memory task reliant on the hippocampus. Studies on humans also show a link between worse cognitive abilities in adolescent populations and consumption of unhealthy diets, particularly those that are excessive in dietary fat [152].

Methodology

Multiple databases were consulted in order to find sources for this literature review such as Google Scholar, Sci hub and PubMed. The articles used for this study possessed the most current publication dates, extending back only to 2013. Most of the listed references were within the past five years. To develop tenets that remain relevant today, this review includes research from previous decades conducted by a few researchers. This study was based on different keywords including brain, brain development, cognitive function, maternal diet, macronutrient, micronutrient, healthy foods, unhealthy foods, caffeine, walnuts, junk foods. All of the search phrases used were carefully selected because of their suitability and significance in relation to the aim of this literature review. Around 1,000 articles were checked for this study, and nearly 185 articles were taken into account. Remaining articles were rejected because they were disproportionate to this topic. The initial sources were chosen by reading the article summaries and assessing whether the contents were pertinent to the search terms. The evaluation of the resources was based on three factors: the standard of the material, the topicality, and the year of publication, which ranged from 2013 to the most recent year. In this study different macronutrients and micronutrients were discussed which are crucial for brain health and development. As well as, different healthy and unhealthy foods were explained. In addition maternal diets were also acknowledged which are necessary for foetal brain development.

Studies on the Recommendations of nutrients for brain Health.

Results and Conclusion

There are a variety of factors that can affect brain development and cognitive function including maternal diet and the consumption of macro and micronutrients. Optimal brain health and the prevention of cognitive decline depend heavily on nutrition. Nutrition should be a priority for pregnant women and infants. We now know that specific nutrients affect brain function and development, Deficiency and excess of certain nutrients differently affect cognitive function. Vitamin A is essential for placental maintenance and foetal brain development. The placenta stores vitamin A to protect the developing foetus in case of maternal insufficient intake LC-PUFAs, particularly DHA is one the most studied that affect cognitive function and offer protection against neurodegeneration. Brain can use ketones because it can serve as an alternative fuel source in certain situations. Adequate protein intake during pregnancy and throughout life is crucial for brain health. Neurogenesis in the brain depends on the presence of zinc and a small protein that is neurotrophins along with neuropeptides play a role in many brain functions. Choline deficiency during pregnancy increases the risk of neural tube defects. Vitamin B especially B6, B12 and B9 have greater importance in brain function and its supplementation reduces cognitive decline. Copper, lutein, zeaxanthin are all essential for brain health. Moreover, certain foods like walnuts (English walnuts), dairy foods, fish, yeast fermented papaya, caffeine and low glycemic index foods can be beneficial for the brain, while junk foods, refined sugar and saturated fats can be harmful.

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